{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T02:13:50Z","timestamp":1792980830723,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]],"date-time":"2025-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), project MNESYS","award":["PE0000006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE0000006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Emerging evidence suggests that the maternal microbiome plays a crucial role in shaping fetal neurodevelopment, immune programming, and metabolic health. Dysbiosis during pregnancy\u2014whether gastrointestinal, oral, or vaginal\u2014can significantly influence pregnancy outcomes and long-term child health. Materials and Methods: The search was performed using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar including research published from January 2000 to January 2025. The keywords used were \u201cFetal Programming\u201d, \u201c Maternal Immune Activation\u201d, \u201cMaternal microbiome\u201d, \u201cMicrobiota\u2013Gut\u2013Brain Axis\u201d, and \u201cPregnancy Dysbiosis\u201d. Results: The maternal microbiome undergoes substantial changes during pregnancy, with alterations in microbial diversity and function linked to conditions such as gestational diabetes, obesity, and preeclampsia. Pregnancy-related dysbiosis has been associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, including an increased risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and cognitive impairments in offspring. Conclusions: Understanding the intricate relationship between maternal microbiota and fetal health is essential for developing targeted interventions. Personalized microbiome-based strategies, including dietary modifications and probiotic supplementation, hold promise in optimizing pregnancy outcomes and promoting health in offspring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17061033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,17]],"date-time":"2025-03-17T04:29:28Z","timestamp":1742185768000},"page":"1033","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Microbiome and Pregnancy Dysbiosis: A Narrative Review on Offspring Health"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Valentina","family":"Biagioli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariarosaria","family":"Matera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Usl Toscana Sud Est, Pediatric Clinical Microbiomics Service, Misericordia Hospital, Via Senese 161, 58100 Grosseto, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luca Antonio","family":"Ramenghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Department Mother and Child, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16147 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4482-3506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Falsaperla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Science-Pediatrics, University of Ferrara, 44124 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6065-1476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pasquale","family":"Striano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16147 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.05.008","article-title":"Understanding the Holobiont: How Microbial Metabolites Affect Human Health and Shape the Immune System","volume":"26","author":"Postler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, X., Shi, Z., Jiang, L., and Zhang, S. (2024). Maternal gut microbiota in the health of mothers and offspring: From the perspective of immunology. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1362784"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348186","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1348186","article-title":"Effect of environmental factors on seminal microbiome and impact on sperm quality","volume":"15","author":"Neto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmad016","article-title":"The pathophysiological role of estrogens in the initial stages of pregnancy: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications for pregnancy outcome from the periconceptional period to end of the first trimester","volume":"29","author":"Parisi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Update"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2024.10.003","article-title":"Maternal gut microbiota influence stem cell function in offspring","volume":"32","author":"Dang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, Y., Bai, Y., Liu, C., Zhai, X., and Zhang, L. (2024). The impact of gut microbiota on autoimmune thyroiditis and relationship with pregnancy outcomes: A review. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1361660"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddiqui, R., Makhlouf, Z., Alharbi, A.M., Alfahemi, H., and Khan, N.A. (2022). The Gut Microbiome and Female Health. Biology, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11111683"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagioli, V., Sortino, V., Falsaperla, R., and Striano, P. (2024). Role of Human Milk Microbiota in Infant Neurodevelopment: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications. Child, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/children11121476"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e3281139ea9","article-title":"Periodontal disease severity is related to high levels of C-reactive protein in pre-eclampsia","volume":"25","author":"Herrera","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2745-3","article-title":"The maternal microbiome modulates fetal neurodevelopment in mice","volume":"586","author":"Vuong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagioli, V., Volpedo, G., Riva, A., Mainardi, P., and Striano, P. (2024). From Birth to Weaning: A Window of Opportunity for Microbiota. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16020272"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00779-w","article-title":"Soil microbiomes and one health","volume":"21","author":"Banerjee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-018-0149-3","article-title":"Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity and health care utilization and costs in the offspring","volume":"43","author":"Kuhle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-024-01626-z","article-title":"Effects of Mediterranean diet during pregnancy on the onset of overweight or obesity in the offspring: A randomized trial","volume":"49","author":"Coppola","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-023-04230-3","article-title":"Maternal microbiota and gestational diabetes: Impact on infant health","volume":"21","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wekema, L., Schoenmakers, S., Schenkelaars, N., Laskewitz, A., Huurman, R.H., Liu, L., Walters, L., Harmsen, H.J.M., Steegers-Theunissen, R.P.M., and Faas, M.M. (2024). Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice Affects the Maternal Gut Microbiota and Immune Response in Mid-Pregnancy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25169076"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-021-01042-7","article-title":"Effects of paternal overnutrition and interventions on future generations","volume":"46","author":"Billah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7827-7-117","article-title":"Tissue-specific cytokine release from human extra-placental membranes stimulated by lipopolysaccharide in a two-compartment tissue culture system","volume":"7","author":"Thiex","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-023-01438-7","article-title":"Microbiome and pregnancy: Focus on microbial dysbiosis coupled with maternal obesity","volume":"48","author":"Beckers","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00714-7","article-title":"Environmental enteric dysfunction: Gut and microbiota adaptation in pregnancy and infancy","volume":"20","author":"Cowardin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2024.101639","article-title":"Protection from environmental enteric dysfunction and growth improvement in malnourished newborns by amplification of secretory","volume":"5","author":"Perruzza","year":"2024","journal-title":"IgA. Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gough, E.K., Edens, T.J., Geum, H.M., Baharmand, I., Gill, S.K., Robertson, R.C., Mutasa, K., Ntozini, R., Smith, L.E., and Chasekwa, B. (2021). Maternal fecal microbiome predicts gestational age, birth weight and neonatal growth in rural Zimbabwe. eBioMedicine, 68.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103421"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.07.008","article-title":"Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy","volume":"150","author":"Koren","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, J.G., Bellissimo, C.J., Yeo, E., Xia, Y.F., Petrik, J.J., Surette, M.G., Bowdish, D.M.E., and Sloboda, D.M. (2019). Obesity during pregnancy results in maternal intestinal inflammation, placental hypoxia, and alters fetal glucose metabolism at mid-gestation. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54098-x"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3837","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v27.i25.3837","article-title":"Gut microbiota in obesity","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1159\/000223819","article-title":"Poor reliability of vaginal and endocervical cultures for evaluating microbiology of endometrial cavity in women with chronic endometritis","volume":"68","author":"Cicinelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gynecol. Obstet. Invest."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inversetti, A., Zambella, E., Guarano, A., Dell\u2019Avanzo, M., and Di Simone, N. (2023). Endometrial Microbiota and Immune Tolerance in Pregnancy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032995"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-023-02791-2","article-title":"Impact of Endometrial Receptivity Analysis on Pregnancy Outcomes In Patients Undergoing Embryo Transfer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"40","author":"Zolfaroli","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Assist. Reprod. Genet."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, X., Louwers, Y.V., Laven, J.S.E., and Schoenmakers, S. (2024). Clinical Relevance of Vaginal and Endometrial Microbiome Investigation in Women with Repeated Implantation Failure and Recurrent Pregnancy Loss. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25010622"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cicinelli, E., Vitagliano, A., Loizzi, V., De Ziegler, D., Fanelli, M., Bettocchi, S., Nardelli, C., Trojano, G., Cicinelli, R., and Minervini, C.F. (2021). Altered Gene Expression Encoding Cytochines, Grow Factors and Cell Cycle Regulators in the Endometrium of Women with Chronic Endometritis. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11030471"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2014.01.029","article-title":"Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 supernatant prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced preterm birth and reduces inflammation in pregnant CD-1 mice","volume":"211","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalia, N., Singh, J., and Kaur, M. (2020). Microbiota in vaginal health and pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal infections: A critical review. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-020-0347-4"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-020-01464-4","article-title":"Vaginal microbiota and the potential of Lactobacillus derivatives in maintaining vaginal health","volume":"19","author":"Chee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-020-00817-w","article-title":"The pregnancy microbiome and preterm birth","volume":"42","author":"Bayar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3793","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-021-02414-3","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome: Normalcy vs dysbiosis","volume":"203","author":"Saraf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0450-2","article-title":"The vaginal microbiome and preterm birth","volume":"25","author":"Fettweis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gars, A., Ronczkowski, N.M., Chassaing, B., Castillo-Ruiz, A., and Forger, N.G. (2021). First Encounters: Effects of the Microbiota on Neonatal Brain Development. Front. Cell Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.682505"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2014.05.002","article-title":"Microbiota and neurodevelopmental windows: Implications for brain disorders","volume":"20","author":"Borre","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zawadzka, A., Cie\u015blik, M., and Adamczyk, A. (2021). The Role of Maternal Immune Activation in the Pathogenesis of Autism: A Review of the Evidence, Proposed Mechanisms and Implications for Treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222111516"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daliry, A., and Pereira, E.N.G.d.S. (2021). Role of Maternal Microbiota and Nutrition in Early-Life Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103533"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.22620","article-title":"Inflammation during fetal and neonatal life: Implications for neurologic and neuropsychiatric disease in children and adults","volume":"71","author":"Hagberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01198-w","article-title":"Maternal acute and chronic inflammation in pregnancy is associated with common neurodevelopmental disorders: A systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aag3194","article-title":"Maternal immune activation: Implications for neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"353","author":"Estes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2022.01.007","article-title":"Maternal inflammation and its ramifications on fetal neurodevelopment","volume":"43","author":"Kwon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2023.12.003","article-title":"The influence of asthma on neuroinflammation and neurodevelopment: From epidemiology to basic models","volume":"116","author":"Tamayo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urbonaite, G., Knyzeliene, A., Bunn, F.S., Smalskys, A., and Neniskyte, U. (2022). The impact of maternal high-fat diet on offspring neurodevelopment. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.909762"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biete, M., and Vasudevan, S. (2024). Gestational diabetes mellitus: Impacts on fetal neurodevelopment, gut dysbiosis, and the promise of precision medicine. Front. Mol. Biosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2024.1420664"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S170","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2013.1340015","article-title":"Adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) and periodontal disease: Pathogenic mechanisms","volume":"84","author":"Madianos","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0128-y","article-title":"Maternal IL-6 during pregnancy can be estimated from newborn brain connectivity and predicts future working memory in offspring","volume":"21","author":"Rudolph","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302383","article-title":"Association between assisted reproductive technology conception and autism in California, 1997\u20132007","volume":"105","author":"Fountain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.104638","article-title":"Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in Caco-2 cell monolayers","volume":"139","author":"Peng","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2016.06.011","article-title":"The neuropharmacology of butyrate: The bread and butter of the microbiota-gut-brain axis?","volume":"99","author":"Stilling","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2008.10.001","article-title":"Epigenetic principles and mechanisms underlying nervous system functions in health and disease","volume":"86","author":"Mehler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kundakovic, M., and Jaric, I. (2017). The Epigenetic Link between Prenatal Adverse Environments and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Genes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes8030104"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00487-7","article-title":"Innate immunity at the crossroads of healthy brain maturation and neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"21","author":"Zengeler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3796-07.2008","article-title":"Activity-dependent suppression of miniature neurotransmission through the regulation of DNA methylation","volume":"28","author":"Nelson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NS20220064","DOI":"10.1042\/NS20220064","article-title":"Maternal immune activation and role of placenta in the prenatal programming of neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"7","author":"Woods","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuronal Signal."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2016.11.007","article-title":"The placental interleukin-6 signaling controls fetal brain development and behavior","volume":"62","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20180794","article-title":"Microbiome-microglia connections via the gut-brain axis","volume":"216","author":"Schlachetzki","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12908","article-title":"The microbiota-microglia axis in central nervous system disorders","volume":"30","author":"Mossad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.11.042","article-title":"Microbiome Influences Prenatal and Adult Microglia in a Sex-Specific Manner","volume":"172","author":"Thion","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4030","article-title":"Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS","volume":"18","author":"Erny","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2017.07.007","article-title":"Offspring neuroimmune consequences of maternal malnutrition: Potential mechanism for behavioral impairments that underlie metabolic and neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"47","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1447","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2012-1107","article-title":"Autism after infection, febrile episodes, and antibiotic use during pregnancy: An exploratory study","volume":"130","author":"Henriksen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4106","article-title":"Type I interferons and microbial metabolites of tryptophan modulate astrocyte activity and central nervous system inflammation via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor","volume":"22","author":"Rothhammer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4732","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau4732","article-title":"Effects of microbiota-directed foods in gnotobiotic animals and undernourished children","volume":"365","author":"Gehrig","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jri.2018.01.004","article-title":"Microglia, the missing link in maternal immune activation and fetal neurodevelopment; and a possible link in preeclampsia and disturbed neurodevelopment?","volume":"126","author":"Prins","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"471","article-title":"Maternal Immune Activation Hypotheses for Human Neurodevelopment: Some Outstanding Questions","volume":"7","author":"Ciesla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-024-01017-6","article-title":"The role of microglia in early neurodevelopment and the effects of maternal immune activation","volume":"46","author":"Mastenbroek","year":"2024","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20683","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20683","article-title":"Diet-induced changes in maternal gut microbiota and metabolomic profiles influence programming of offspring obesity risk in rats","volume":"6","author":"Paul","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e016777","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-016777","article-title":"The importance of maternal diet quality during pregnancy on cognitive and behavioural outcomes in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Borge","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13802","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.13802","article-title":"Nutrition during pregnancy: Influence on the gut microbiome and fetal development","volume":"91","author":"Barrientos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrett, H.L., Gomez-Arango, L.F., Wilkinson, S.A., McIntyre, H.D., Callaway, L.K., Morrison, M., and Dekker Nitert, M. (2018). A Vegetarian Diet Is a Major Determinant of Gut Microbiota Composition in Early Pregnancy. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10070890"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-020-02337-7","article-title":"Maternal diet during pregnancy and intestinal markers are associated with early gut microbiota","volume":"60","author":"Calatayud","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barchitta, M., Magnano San Lio, R., La Rosa, M.C., La Mastra, C., Favara, G., Ferrante, G., Galvani, F., Pappalardo, E., Ettore, C., and Ettore, G. (2023). The Effect of Maternal Dietary Patterns on Birth Weight for Gestational Age: Findings from the MAMI-MED Cohort. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15081922"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-7614-0_7","article-title":"Pregnancy and Lactation: A Window of Opportunity to Improve Individual Health","volume":"1735","author":"Zambrano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaragoza-Mart\u00ed, A., Ruiz-R\u00f3denas, N., Herranz-Chofre, I., S\u00e1nchez-SanSegundo, M., de la Delgado, V.C.S., and Hurtado-S\u00e1nchez, J.A. (2022). Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Pregnancy and Its Benefits on Maternal-Fetal Health: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.813942"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2023.05.030","article-title":"Mediterranean diet and female reproductive health over lifespan: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"229","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-020-00390-5","article-title":"The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on fermented foods","volume":"18","author":"Marco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedn.2023.12.019","article-title":"The effects of fermented food consumption in pregnancy on neonatal and infant health: An integrative review","volume":"75","author":"Kaya","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107033","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2024.107033","article-title":"Maternal probiotic Lactocaseibacillus rhamnosus HN001 treatment alters postpartum anxiety, cortical monoamines, and the gut microbiome","volume":"165","author":"Lonstein","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2019.01.007","article-title":"Bifidobacterium with the role of 5-hydroxytryptophan synthesis regulation alleviates the symptom of depression and related microbiota dysbiosis","volume":"66","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2012.03.024","article-title":"Prevention of gut leakiness by a probiotic treatment leads to attenuated HPA response to an acute psychological stress in rats","volume":"37","author":"Durand","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusch, J.A., Layden, B.T., and Dugas, L.R. (2023). Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1130689"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.09.016","article-title":"Do bacteria shape our development? Crosstalk between intestinal microbiota and HPA axis","volume":"83","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, V.F., Elias-Oliveira, J., Pereira, \u00cd.S., Pereira, J.A., Barbosa, S.C., Machado, M.S.G., and Carlos, D. (2022). Akkermansia muciniphila and Gut Immune System: A Good Friendship That Attenuates Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Obesity, and Diabetes. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.934695"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1924","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.14293","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila alleviates high-fat-diet-related metabolic-associated fatty liver disease by modulating gut microbiota and bile acids","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12328","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12328","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles derived from Akkermansia muciniphila promote placentation and mitigate preeclampsia in a mouse model","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.122.320771","article-title":"Gut Dysbiosis Promotes Preeclampsia by Regulating Macrophages and Trophoblasts","volume":"131","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4261","article-title":"A microbial protein that alleviates metabolic syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Marette","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brosseau, C., Selle, A., Duval, A., Misme-Aucouturier, B., Chesneau, M., Brouard, S., Cherbuy, C., Cariou, V., Bouchaud, G., and Mincham, K.T. (2021). Prebiotic Supplementation During Pregnancy Modifies the Gut Microbiota and Increases Metabolites in Amniotic Fluid, Driving a Tolerogenic Environment In Utero. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.712614"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/6\/1033\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:54:12Z","timestamp":1760028852000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/6\/1033"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["nu17061033"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu17061033","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]]}}}