{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T03:27:09Z","timestamp":1787887629815,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]],"date-time":"2025-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747699200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ELTE BDPK Excellence Program","award":["12\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12\/2023"]}]},{"name":"ELTE BDPK Excellence Program","award":["12\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12\/2024"]}]},{"name":"ELTE BDPK Excellence Program","award":["12\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12\/2025"]}]},{"name":"Ketone Technologies LLC","award":["12\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12\/2023"]}]},{"name":"Ketone Technologies LLC","award":["12\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12\/2024"]}]},{"name":"Ketone Technologies LLC","award":["12\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: It has been demonstrated that levetiracetam can decrease absence epileptic activity in both human patients and different types of animal models of absence epilepsy, such as the genetically absence epileptic Wistar Albino Glaxo\/Rijswijk (WAG\/Rij) rat. It was also suggested previously that exogenous ketone supplements (EKSs)-evoked ketosis not only decreases the number of spike-wave discharges (SWDs) but also enhances the anti-absence epileptic effect of pyrimidine nucleoside uridine in WAG\/Rij rats. These findings suggest that EKSs may enhance the efficacy of clinically used anti-epileptic drugs, such as levetiracetam. Methods: We investigated the effect of not only levetiracetam (intraperitoneal\/i.p. 200 mg\/kg) alone and KEKS supplemented food (containing 10% ketone ester\/KE and 10% ketone salt\/KS in a normal rat chow) alone, but also the combination of levetiracetam and KEKS supplemented food on SWD number and SWD time for 5 days in WAG\/Rij rats. For evaluation of SWDs, electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings were performed every day. Moreover, for the measurement of blood glucose and R-beta-hydroxybutyrate (R-\u03b2HB) levels, the blood was taken from the tail vein of rats after EEG registration. Results: It was demonstrated that the administration of both levetiracetam alone and KEKS food alone decreased the SWD number and time spent in SWD, compared to control. Moreover, after combined administration of levetiracetam with KEKS food, enhanced anti-absence epileptic effect was observed, compared to levetiracetam alone. Blood R-\u03b2HB level significantly increased after administration of both KEKS food alone and KEKS food in combination with levetiracetam. Nevertheless, these treatments did not significantly change the blood glucose levels. Conclusions: We can conclude that EKSs may be able to enhance the anti-epileptic effect of different drugs, and this combined treatment method may represent a promising new approach and effective therapy against epileptic seizures, especially in treatment-resistant patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17101721","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]],"date-time":"2025-05-20T04:48:18Z","timestamp":1747716498000},"page":"1721","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Exogenous Ketone Supplementation Enhances the Anti-Epileptic Effect of Levetiracetam in Wistar Albino Glaxo\/Rijswijk Rats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9981-0668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enik\u0151","family":"Rauch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Berzsenyi D\u00e1niel Teacher Training Centre, ELTE E\u00f6tv\u00f6s Lor\u00e1nd University, K\u00e1rolyi G\u00e1sp\u00e1r t\u00e9r 4, 9700 Szombathely, Hungary"},{"name":"Institute of Biology, University of P\u00e9cs, Ifj\u00fas\u00e1g Str. 6, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8677-823X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Csilla","family":"Ari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ketone Technologies LLC, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"},{"name":"Behavioral Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9652-181X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominic P.","family":"D\u2019Agostino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ketone Technologies LLC, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"},{"name":"Laboratory of Metabolic Medicine, Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA"},{"name":"Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Ocala, FL 34471, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8571-5686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zsolt","family":"Kov\u00e1cs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Berzsenyi D\u00e1niel Teacher Training Centre, ELTE E\u00f6tv\u00f6s Lor\u00e1nd University, K\u00e1rolyi G\u00e1sp\u00e1r t\u00e9r 4, 9700 Szombathely, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Contreras-Garc\u00eda, I.J., C\u00e1rdenas-Rodr\u00edguez, N., Romo-Mancillas, A., Bandala, C., Zamudio, S.R., G\u00f3mez-Manzo, S., Hern\u00e1ndez-Ochoa, B., Mendoza-Torreblanca, J.G., and Pichardo-Mac\u00edas, L.A. (2022). Levetiracetam Mechanisms of Action: From Molecules to Systems. Pharmaceuticals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15040475"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs, Z., Skatchkov, S.N., Veh, R.W., Szab\u00f3, Z., N\u00e9meth, K., Szab\u00f3, P.T., Kardos, J., and H\u00e9ja, L. (2022). Critical Role of Astrocytic Polyamine and GABA Metabolism in Epileptogenesis. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.787319"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9861","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0308208101","article-title":"The synaptic vesicle protein SV2A is the binding site for the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam","volume":"101","author":"Lynch","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2018.01.004","article-title":"Effect of levetiracetam on extracellular amino acid levels in the dorsal hippocampus of rats with temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"140","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2015.05.020","article-title":"Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids enhance the protective effect of levetiracetam against seizures, cognitive impairment and hippocampal oxidative DNA damage in young kindled rats","volume":"135","author":"Shaikh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2007.03.021","article-title":"Effect of levetiracetam on molecular regulation of hippocampal glutamate and GABA transporters in rats with chronic seizures induced by amygdalar FeCl3 injection","volume":"1151","author":"Ueda","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.02.040","article-title":"Levetiracetam enhances endogenous antioxidant in the hippocampus of rats: In vivo evaluation by brain microdialysis combined with ESR spectroscopy","volume":"1266","author":"Ueda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ari, C., Kov\u00e1cs, Z., Juhasz, G., Murdun, C., Goldhagen, C.R., Koutnik, A.P., Poff, A.M., Kesl, S.L., and D\u2019Agostino, D.P. (2016). Exogenous Ketone Supplements Reduce Anxiety-Related Behavior in Sprague-Dawley and Wistar Albino Glaxo\/Rijswijk Rats. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2016.00137"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs, Z., D\u2019Agostino, D.P., Dobolyi, A., and Ari, C. (2017). Adenosine A1 Receptor Antagonism Abolished the Anti-seizure Effects of Exogenous Ketone Supplementation in Wistar Albino Glaxo Rijswijk Rats. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2017.00235"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-016-2099-2","article-title":"\u03b2-Hydroxybutyrate in the Brain: One Molecule, Multiple Mechanisms","volume":"42","author":"Achanta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poff, A.M., Rho, J.M., and D\u2019Agostino, D.P. (2019). Ketone Administration for Seizure Disorders: History and Rationale for Ketone Esters and Metabolic Alternatives. Front. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.01041"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2012.07670.x","article-title":"Ketone bodies in epilepsy","volume":"121","author":"McNally","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.14581\/jer.15001","article-title":"Pharmacoresistant Epilepsy: A Current Update on Non-Conventional Pharmacological and Non-Pharmacological Interventions","volume":"5","author":"Sharma","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bolyard, M.L., Graziano, C.M., Fontaine, K.R., Sayer, R.D., Fisher, G., and Plaisance, E.P. (2023). Tolerability and Acceptability of an Exogenous Ketone Monoester and Ketone Monoester\/Salt Formulation in Humans. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15234876"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2008.03099.x","article-title":"Levetiracetam in absence epilepsy","volume":"50","author":"Verrotti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2004.02.001","article-title":"Effects of levetiracetam on spike and wave discharges in WAG\/Rij rats","volume":"13","author":"Bouwman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharep.2019.04.017","article-title":"Antiepileptogenic effects of Ethosuximide and Levetiracetam in WAG\/Rij rats are only temporary","volume":"71","author":"Leo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02400.x","article-title":"Comparison of the antiepileptogenic effects of an early long-term treatment with ethosuximide or levetiracetam in a genetic animal model of absence epilepsy","volume":"51","author":"Russo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs, Z., D\u2019Agostino, D.P., Diamond, D.M., and Ari, C. (2019). Exogenous Ketone Supplementation Decreased the Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Increase in Absence Epileptic Activity in Wistar Albino Glaxo Rijswijk Rats. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2019.00045"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brunner, B., Rauch, E., Ari, C., D\u2019Agostino, D.P., and Kov\u00e1cs, Z. (2021). Enhancement of Ketone Supplements-Evoked Effect on Absence Epileptic Activity by Co-Administration of Uridine in Wistar Albino Glaxo Rijswijk Rats. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13010234"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2008.01713.x","article-title":"Benefit of combination therapy in epilepsy: A review of the preclinical evidence with levetiracetam","volume":"50","author":"Kaminski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.55730\/1300-0144.5669","article-title":"Levetiracetam ameliorates epileptogenesis by modulating the adenosinergic pathway in a kindling model of epilepsy in mice","volume":"53","author":"Jamal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Turk. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026179013847","article-title":"Genetic animal models for absence epilepsy: A review of the WAG\/Rij strain of rats","volume":"33","author":"Coenen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Genet."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brunner, B., Ari, C., D\u2019Agostino, D.P., and Kov\u00e1cs, Z. (2021). Adenosine Receptors Modulate the Exogenous Ketogenic Supplement-Evoked Alleviating Effect on Lipopolysaccharide-Generated Increase in Absence Epileptic Activity in WAG\/Rij Rats. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13114082"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Paxinos, G., and Watson, C. (1998). The Rat Brain Stereotaxic Coordinates, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13267","article-title":"Brivaracetam, a selective high-affinity synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A) ligand with preclinical evidence of high brain permeability and fast onset of action","volume":"57","author":"Nicolas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0704141","article-title":"A microdialysis study of the novel antiepileptic drug levetiracetam: Extracellular pharmacokinetics and effect on taurine in rat brain","volume":"133","author":"Tong","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00279.2011","article-title":"A new mechanism for antiepileptic drug action: Vesicular entry may mediate the effects of levetiracetam","volume":"106","author":"Meehan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1528-1157.2002.24501.x","article-title":"Selective blockade of N-type calcium channels by levetiracetam","volume":"43","author":"Lukyanetz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(01)01884-5","article-title":"Levetiracetam inhibits the high-voltage-activated Ca2+ current in pyramidal neurones of rat hippocampal slices","volume":"306","author":"Niespodziany","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2009.00463.x","article-title":"Levetiracetam inhibits glutamate transmission through presynaptic P\/Q-type calcium channels on the granule cells of the dentate gyrus","volume":"158","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.4103\/0028-3886.193801","article-title":"Levetiracetam as an antiepileptic, neuroprotective, and hyperalgesic drug","volume":"64","author":"Bandala","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. India"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3908(03)00248-X","article-title":"Reduction of voltage-operated potassium currents by levetiracetam: A novel antiepileptic mechanism of action?","volume":"45","author":"Madeja","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(96)00587-2","article-title":"The novel antiepileptic drug levetiracetam (ucb L059) induces alterations in GABA metabolism and turnover in discrete areas of rat brain and reduces neuronal activity in substantia nigra pars reticulata","volume":"735","year":"1996","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0000000000001067","article-title":"High-field MRS study of GABA+ in patients with migraine: Response to levetiracetam treatment","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2012.03.056","article-title":"Levetiracetam inhibits neurotransmitter release associated with CICR","volume":"518","author":"Fukuyama","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2006.00973.x","article-title":"Modulation of AMPA receptors in cultured cortical neurons induced by the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam","volume":"48","author":"Carunchio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0b013e31826c7fc2","article-title":"The local peripheral antihyperalgesic effect of levetiracetam and its mechanism of action in an inflammatory pain model","volume":"115","author":"Micov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christensen, K.V., Leffers, H., Watson, W.P., S\u00e1nchez, C., Kallunki, P., and Egebjerg, J. (2010). Levetiracetam attenuates hippocampal expression of synaptic plasticity-related immediate early and late response genes in amygdala-kindled rats. BMC Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-11-9"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2019.134363","article-title":"Suppressive effects of levetiracetam on neuroinflammation and phagocytic microglia: A comparative study of levetiracetam, valproate and carbamazepine","volume":"708","author":"Itoh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.01.018","article-title":"Levetiracetam inhibits interleukin-1 beta inflammatory responses in the hippocampus and piriform cortex of epileptic rats","volume":"471","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2016.09.038","article-title":"Levetiracetam treatment influences blood-brain barrier failure associated with angiogenesis and inflammatory responses in the acute phase of epileptogenesis in post-status epilepticus mice","volume":"1652","author":"Itoh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2018.09.015","article-title":"The effect of serum levetiracetam concentrations on therapeutic response and IL1-beta concentration in patients with epilepsy","volume":"148","author":"Gulcebi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2013.07.026","article-title":"Impact of mood stabilizers and antiepileptic drugs on cytokine production in-vitro","volume":"47","author":"Himmerich","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"129","article-title":"Cytokines, epilepsy and epileptic drugs--is there a mutual influence?","volume":"59","author":"Steinborn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2005.00298.x","article-title":"Brain inflammation in epilepsy: Experimental and clinical evidence","volume":"46","author":"Vezzani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3219","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4486-04.2005","article-title":"Differential regulation of AMPA receptor and GABA receptor trafficking by tumor necrosis factor-alpha","volume":"25","author":"Stellwagen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2011.03.018","article-title":"IL-1 receptor\/Toll-like receptor signaling in infection, inflammation, stress and neurodegeneration couples hyperexcitability and seizures","volume":"25","author":"Vezzani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(98)00680-0","article-title":"Interleukin-1beta activates forebrain glial cells and increases nitric oxide production and cortical glutamate and GABA release in vivo: Implications for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"91","author":"Casamenti","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1159\/000026433","article-title":"Cytokine effects on glutamate uptake by human astrocytes","volume":"7","author":"Hu","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neuroimmunomodulation"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.1999.0720652.x","article-title":"The bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide causes rapid inappropriate excitation in rat cortex","volume":"72","author":"Wang","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0013-9580.2004.00104.x","article-title":"The activity of antiepileptic drugs as histone deacetylase inhibitors","volume":"45","author":"Eyal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8027.2011.00355.x","article-title":"Levetiracetam exhibits protective properties on rat Schwann cells in vitro","volume":"16","author":"Stettner","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Peripher. Nerv. Syst."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2006.00454.x","article-title":"Levetiracetam: Antiepileptic properties and protective effects on mitochondrial dysfunction in experimental status epilepticus","volume":"47","author":"Gibbs","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1002\/neu.10291","article-title":"Differential expression of high voltage-activated Ca2+ channel types in the rostral reticular thalamic nucleus of the absence epileptic WAG\/Rij rat","volume":"58","author":"Scheenen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2015.05.054","article-title":"Absence epileptic activity changing effects of non-adenosine nucleoside inosine, guanosine and uridine in Wistar Albino Glaxo Rijswijk rats","volume":"300","author":"Dobolyi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs, Z., Skatchkov, S.N., Szab\u00f3, Z., Qahtan, S., M\u00e9ndez-Gonz\u00e1lez, M.P., Malpica-Nieves, C.J., Eaton, M.J., Kardos, J., and H\u00e9ja, L. (2022). Putrescine Intensifies Glu\/GABA Exchange Mechanism and Promotes Early Termination of Seizures. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23158191"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2006.02.023","article-title":"Facilitation of spike-wave discharge activity by lipopolysaccharides in Wistar Albino Glaxo\/Rijswijk rats","volume":"140","author":"Papp","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2011.05.003","article-title":"Intracerebroventricularly administered lipopolysaccharide enhances spike-wave discharges in freely moving WAG\/Rij rats","volume":"85","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2014.06.016","article-title":"Early molecular and behavioral response to lipopolysaccharide in the WAG\/Rij rat model of absence epilepsy and depressive-like behavior, involves interplay between AMPK, AKT\/mTOR pathways and neuroinflammatory cytokine release","volume":"42","author":"Russo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1007\/s11062-012-9252-6","article-title":"Cytokines and Absence Seizures in a Genetic Rat Model","volume":"43","author":"Lyashenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurophysiology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2013.08.002","article-title":"A1 and A3 adenosine receptors inhibit LPS-induced hypoxia-inducible factor-1 accumulation in murine astrocytes","volume":"76","author":"Gessi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3886","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0055-10.2010","article-title":"Metabolic autocrine regulation of neurons involves cooperation among pannexin hemichannels, adenosine receptors, and KATP channels","volume":"30","author":"Kawamura","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.2174\/156802611795347636","article-title":"Area, age and gender dependence of the nucleoside system in the brain: A review of current literature","volume":"11","author":"Palkovits","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ed Navia, A., Dal Ben, D., Lambertucci, C., Spinaci, A., Volpini, R., Marques-Morgado, I., Coelho, J.E., Lopes, L.V., Marucci, G., and Buccioni, M. (2020). Adenosine Receptors as Neuroinflammation Modulators: Role of A1 Agonists and A2A Antagonists. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9071739"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2010.09.002","article-title":"Metabolic control of vesicular glutamate transport and release","volume":"68","author":"Juge","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093722","article-title":"The ketogenic diet and brain metabolism of amino acids: Relationship to the anticonvulsant effect","volume":"27","author":"Yudkoff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Masino, S.A. (2022). Neuroprotective and Behavioral Benefits of Exogenous Ketone Supplementation-Evoked Ketosis. Ketogenic Diet and Metabolic Therapies: Expanded Roles in Health and Disease, Oxford Academic. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs, Z., Rauch, E., D\u2019Agostino, D.P., and Ari, C. (2024). Putative Role of Adenosine A1 Receptors in Exogenous Ketone Supplements-Evoked Anti-Epileptic Effect. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25189869"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3804","article-title":"The ketone metabolite \u03b2-hydroxybutyrate blocks NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammatory disease","volume":"21","author":"Youm","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2015.05.022","article-title":"The genetic absence epilepsy rat from Strasbourg as a model to decipher the neuronal and network mechanisms of generalized idiopathic epilepsies","volume":"260","author":"Depaulis","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/10\/1721\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:35:27Z","timestamp":1760031327000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/10\/1721"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nu17101721"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu17101721","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]]}}}