{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T19:07:30Z","timestamp":1792091250138,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]],"date-time":"2025-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753056000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["R01 DK111622"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 DK111622"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["P30 DK048520"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 DK048520"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["UL1 TR002535"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 TR002535"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["AHA 23POST1022471"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHA 23POST1022471"]}]},{"name":"American Heart Association","award":["R01 DK111622"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 DK111622"]}]},{"name":"American Heart Association","award":["P30 DK048520"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 DK048520"]}]},{"name":"American Heart Association","award":["UL1 TR002535"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 TR002535"]}]},{"name":"American Heart Association","award":["AHA 23POST1022471"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHA 23POST1022471"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Daily caloric restriction (DCR) is a common dietary weight loss strategy, but leads to metabolic and behavioral adaptations, including maladaptive eating behaviors and dysregulated appetite. Intermittent fasting (IMF) may mitigate these effects by offering diet flexibility during energy restriction. This secondary analysis compared changes in eating behaviors and appetite-related hormones between 4:3 intermittent fasting (4:3 IMF) and DCR and examined their association with weight loss over 12 months. Methods: Adults with overweight or obesity were randomized to 4:3 IMF or DCR for 12 months. Both randomized groups received a matched targeted weekly dietary energy deficit (34%), comprehensive group-based behavioral support, and a prescription to increase moderate-intensity aerobic activity to 300 min\/week. Eating behaviors were assessed using validated questionnaires at baseline and months 3, 6, and 12. Fasting levels of leptin, ghrelin, peptide YY, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and adiponectin were measured at baseline and months 6 and 12. Linear mixed models and Pearson correlations were used to evaluate outcomes. Results: Included in this analysis were 165 adults (mean \u00b1 SD; age 42 \u00b1 9 years, BMI 34.2 \u00b1 4.3 kg\/m2, 74% female) randomized to 4:3 IMF (n = 84) or DCR (n = 81). At 12 months, binge eating and uncontrolled eating scores decreased in 4:3 IMF but increased in DCR (p &lt; 0.01 for between-group differences). Among 4:3 IMF, greater weight loss was associated with decreased uncontrolled eating (r = \u22120.27, p = 0.03), emotional eating (r = \u22120.37, p &lt; 0.01), and increased cognitive restraint (r = 0.35, p &lt; 0.01) at 12 months. There were no between-group differences in changes in fasting appetite-related hormones at any time point. Conclusions: Compared to DCR, 4:3 IMF exhibited improved binge eating and uncontrolled eating behaviors at 12 months. This may, in part, explain the greater weight loss achieved by 4:3 IMF versus DCR. Future studies should examine mechanisms underlying eating behavior changes with 4:3 IMF and their long-term sustainability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17142385","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]],"date-time":"2025-07-21T13:59:11Z","timestamp":1753106351000},"page":"2385","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Effects of 4:3 Intermittent Fasting on Eating Behaviors and Appetite Hormones: A Secondary Analysis of a 12-Month Behavioral Weight Loss Intervention"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9754-4417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew J.","family":"Breit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ann E.","family":"Caldwell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danielle M.","family":"Ostendorf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Department of Kinesiology, Recreation and Sports Studies, University of Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhaoxing","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics & Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4176-0917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seth A.","family":"Creasy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bryan","family":"Swanson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0308-5666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily B.","family":"Hill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Section of Nutrition, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul S.","family":"MacLean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel H.","family":"Bessesen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9151-9745","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward L.","family":"Melanson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoria A.","family":"Catenacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. Montview Boulevard, Aurora, CO 80045, USA"},{"name":"Anschutz Health and Wellness Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12348 E. 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