{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T21:37:38Z","timestamp":1791409058165,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico\u2014CNPq"},{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior\u2014CAPES"},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro\u2014FAPERJ"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Many women report restrictions on caffeine intake during gestation, but some of these restrictions are withdrawn during the lactation period. Given that both periods have elevated epigenetic plasticity, our aim was to compare the effects of caffeine exposure during each isolated period on offspring metabolism and susceptibility to obesity in response to metabolic overload. Methods: Pregnant Wistar rats received orogastric caffeine (CAF) (25 mg\/kg\/day) or vehicle during gestation (CAF G) or lactation (CAF L) periods. We evaluated the body mass, adiposity, hormone levels, and food behavior of offspring of both sexes at different ages. Adult animals were subjected to metabolic overload, with fructose solution (10%) offered for ten days. Results\/Discussion: CAF G and CAF L dams presented lower T3 levels (\u221270 and \u221252%) because of reduced TSH activity in the thyroid gland (\u221228 and \u221229%), despite unchanged gland morphology. At weaning, CAF G and CAF L males presented lower T3 levels (\u221275 and \u221280%), as did CAF L females (\u221285%). At puberty, females in the CAF L group showed glucose intolerance. In adulthood, CAF G males exhibited a greater preference for palatable food. In addition, CAF G and CAF L males showed increased feed efficiency, suggesting a greater susceptibility to obesity development. To test this susceptibility, the animals were subjected to fructose overload. Indeed, we observed that despite the absence of a fructose effect in the control group, male CAF G and female CAF L animals showed greater adiposity in response to fructose overload (+43% and +37%, respectively). Conclusions: Caffeine exposure during lactation increases the risk of obesity development among female offspring. However, for male offspring, gestation seems more critical.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17172763","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T14:18:49Z","timestamp":1756217929000},"page":"2763","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Early Caffeine Exposure Causes Metabolic and Hormonal Changes Differently According to the Window of Exposure (Gestation or Lactation), Sex, and Age in a Rat Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0737-3240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luana Lopes","family":"de Souza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0978-7949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosiane Aparecida","family":"Miranda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iala Milene","family":"Bertasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beatriz Souza","family":"da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3387-0691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mayara","family":"da Silva Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2589-6669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reinaldo","family":"R\u00f6pke-Junior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Experimental Endocrinology-LEEx, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beatriz Ribeiro","family":"de Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Experimental Endocrinology-LEEx, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7832-8717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leandro","family":"Miranda-Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Experimental Endocrinology-LEEx, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Egberto Gaspar","family":"Moura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2477-4364","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia Cristina","family":"Lisboa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Endocrine Physiology, Institute of Biology Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28905-320, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00029.2013","article-title":"Early Developmental Conditioning of Later Health and Disease: Physiology or Pathophysiology?","volume":"94","author":"Hanson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Physiol. 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