{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T22:15:55Z","timestamp":1779228955561,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008893","name":"University of Iowa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008893","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Stead Family Children\u2019s Hospital Discretionary Funding"},{"name":"NIH-supported Clinical and Translational Science program","award":["UM1TR004403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UM1TR004403"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: This study examines the effects of non-standard (lactose-reduced, hydrolyzed), cow-milk-based infant formulas on early childhood growth outcomes compared to standard formulas and breastfeeding. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included full-term infants with a birth weight &gt;2500 g. Exposure and control data, including the type of infant formula [non-standard vs. standard] and breastfeeding status, were obtained at 2-month well visits. Growth outcomes (weight-for-age, length-for-age, BMI (Body Mass Index), and weight-for-length z-scores] were calculated using WHO (World Health Organization) growth standards at 1- and 2-year well visits. Generalized linear mixed models were used to evaluate associations between formula type and growth outcomes, adjusting for maternal, infant, and socioeconomic factors. Results: A total of 5515 infants were included in the final analysis. Feeding practices included exclusive breastfeeding (35%), standard formula (42%), and non-standard formula (23%). Infants fed non-standard formulas had significantly higher weight-for-age, BMI, and weight-for-length z-scores at 12 months than those fed standard formulas, and after controlling for other covariates, weight-for-age and BMI z-scores remained significantly higher in the non-standard formula infants. At 24 months, only weight-for-age z-scores remained significantly higher for non-standard formula users compared to standard formula users. Both non-standard and standard formula groups showed significantly higher weight-for-age, BMI, weight-for-length, and length-for-age z-scores compared to breastfed infants at 12 and 24 months. Conclusions: Non-standard infant formula may have a differential effect on growth during the first year of life compared to standard infant formula and breastfeeding. Future research should explore the long-term health effects of non-standard infant formula use and the risk of obesity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17193111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T10:54:48Z","timestamp":1759229688000},"page":"3111","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effects of Infant Formula Type on Early Childhood Growth Outcomes: A Retrospective Cohort Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2228-1144","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uzma","family":"Rani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Division of General Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7403-430X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roba","family":"Alwasila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Pancreatology, and Nutrition, Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0229-966X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William T.","family":"Story","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Community and Behavioral Health, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5041-0708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Ten Eyck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Clinical and Translational Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Asher","family":"Hoberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Clinical and Translational Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6180-9714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donna A.","family":"Santillan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7026-0006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aamer","family":"Imdad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Pancreatology, and Nutrition, Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Stierman, B., Afful, J., Carroll, M.D., Chen, T.C., Davy, O., Fink, S., Fryar, C.D., Gu, Q., Hales, C.M., and Hughes, J.P. 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