{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T14:00:43Z","timestamp":1788184843731,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759881600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004166","name":"Medical University of Warsaw","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["11111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11111"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Caffeine is one of the most widely consumed psychoactive substances globally and is a common component of daily diets, particularly among women of reproductive age. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have indicated potential adverse effects of prenatal caffeine exposure, including disturbances in fetal growth, metabolic dysregulation, organ malformations, and neurodevelopmental alterations. These findings suggest that caffeine may influence multiple physiological pathways during gestation, including epigenetic modifications and metabolic programming. However, evidence from human studies remains heterogeneous and often inconclusive. Recent cohort studies and meta-analyses have reported that moderate maternal caffeine intake is not significantly associated with increased risks of gestational diabetes mellitus, gestational hypertension, or preeclampsia, although higher intake levels have been linked to anemia, preterm birth, and low birth weight in some populations. Furthermore, emerging data suggest potential associations between prenatal caffeine exposure and early neurodevelopmental outcomes, including behavioral changes, subtle structural brain differences, and alterations in offspring metabolic health and obesity risk. Despite these findings, the magnitude and clinical relevance of these effects remain uncertain, partly due to variability in caffeine sources, dosages, study designs, and reliance on self-reported intake. This review aims to synthesize current evidence on maternal caffeine consumption, its impact on pregnancy complications, fetal development, and long-term child health outcomes. By integrating experimental and clinical data, the study provides a comprehensive overview that may assist clinicians and healthcare professionals in counseling pregnant women regarding caffeine intake and potential risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17193173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T12:04:52Z","timestamp":1759925092000},"page":"3173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Pregnancy and Caffeine Metabolism: Updated Insights and Implications for Maternal\u2013Fetal Health"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6732-6563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna Maria","family":"Struniewicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magdalena Maria","family":"Ptaszek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alicja Marianna","family":"Zi\u00f3\u0142kowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aneta","family":"Nitsch-Osuch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social Medicine and Public Health, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6596-7269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Koz\u0142owska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Social Medicine and Public Health, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2019.11.004","article-title":"Impacts of Caffeine during Pregnancy","volume":"31","author":"Qian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. 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