{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T20:15:24Z","timestamp":1792613724103,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) constitutes a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition frequently accompanied by considerable disturbances in feeding behavior and nutritional balance. These difficulties arise from complex and multifactorial mechanisms, exerting a significant impact on physical health, metabolic homeostasis, and psychosocial functioning. The present review aims to provide a critical synthesis of current evidence regarding the underlying biological and behavioral mechanisms of feeding difficulties in ASD and to delineate the spectrum of comorbid eating disorders within this population. Methods: A narrative review of the peer-reviewed scientific literature was undertaken, emphasizing studies investigating the interrelationship between ASD and nutritional functioning in pediatric and adolescent populations. Particular focus was placed on research exploring sensory processing abnormalities, gut microbiota alterations, and the clinical manifestation of eating disorders in individuals with ASD. Results: The analysis revealed that sensory hypersensitivity, behavioral inflexibility, and disturbances within the gut\u2013brain axis constitute principal determinants of atypical eating patterns in ASD. Individuals on the autism spectrum frequently exhibit pronounced food selectivity, neophobia, and symptoms consistent with Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID). Furthermore, an increased prevalence of anorexia nervosa and orthorexia nervosa has been documented, likely reflecting shared cognitive and behavioral features with ASD. \u201cEmotional eating\u201d tendencies and a marked preference for high-caloric, energy-dense foods\u2014often potentiated by psychopharmacological treatment and reduced physical activity\u2014further contribute to an elevated risk of overweight and obesity. Conclusions: Children and adolescents with ASD display a bimodal distribution of body mass, encompassing both undernutrition and obesity, indicative of a multifaceted interplay among sensory, behavioral, cognitive, and metabolic determinants. A comprehensive understanding of this heterogeneity is crucial for the development of individualized, evidence-based interventions integrating nutritional management with behavioral and psychotherapeutic approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17233714","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T11:50:13Z","timestamp":1764244213000},"page":"3714","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["From ARFID to Binge Eating: A Review of the Sensory, Behavioral, and Gut\u2013Brain Axis Mechanisms Driving Co-Occurring Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3936-0698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Kopa\u0144ska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, al. Tadeusza Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Izabela","family":"\u0141ucka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychiatry, Psychotic Disorders and Old Age Psychiatry, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Siegel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychiatry, Psychotic Disorders and Old Age Psychiatry, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0986-648X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Trojniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Research Club \u201cReh-Tech\u201d, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, al. Tadeusza Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4918-1984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"P\u0105chalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuropsychology and Neurorehabilitation, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, 30-705 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2016). American Psychiatric Publishing American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.]. [DSM-5\u00ae]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Janas-Kozik, M., and Wola\u0144czyk, T. (2021). Psychiatria Dzieci i M\u0142odzie\u017cy. Tom 2, PZWL Wydawnictwo Lekarskie."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"361","article-title":"The Role of Quantitative Electroencephalography in Diagnostic Workup of Mental Disorders","volume":"75","author":"Ochojska","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). World Health Organization International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11), WHO."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0054.7856","article-title":"The Importance of QEEG in Diagnosing and Evaluating the Effectiveness of EEG Biofeedback Therapy in Children with Mild Autism Spectrum Disorder, Revealing Attention Deficit Disorder","volume":"22","author":"Ochojska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopa\u0144ska, M., Ochojska, D., Sarzy\u0144ska, I., Trojniak, J., and Szczygielski, J. (2025). Exploratory Quantitative EEG Characteristics in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front. Psychiatry, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1689000"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carpita, B., Nardi, B., Pronest\u00ec, C., Cerofolini, G., Filidei, M., Bonelli, C., Massimetti, G., Cremone, I.M., Pini, S., and Dell\u2019Osso, L. (2025). The Mediating Role of Social Camouflaging on the Relationship Between Autistic Traits and Orthorexic Symptoms. Brain Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15050503"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pila\u0159, L., Stanislavsk\u00e1, L.K., Kvasni\u010dka, R., Hartman, R., and Tich\u00e1, I. (2021). Healthy Food on Instagram Social Network: Vegan, Homemade and Clean Eating. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061991"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hejda, P., Mazur, A., Trojniak, J., Bie\u0144, S., and Kopa\u0144ska, M. (2025). Control and Determinants of the Tobacco Epidemic and the Use of Other Tobacco Products among Children and Adolescents in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship. Front. Public. Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1629481"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Janas-Kozik, M., and Wola\u0144czyk, T. (2021). Psychiatria Dzieci i M\u0142odzie\u017cy. Tom I, PZWL Wydawnictwo Lekarskie."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss7202a1","article-title":"Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years\u2014Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020","volume":"72","author":"Maenner","year":"2023","journal-title":"MMWR Surveill. Summ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0054.9911","article-title":"The Use of Quantitative Electroencephalography (Eyes Closed) to Assess the Effectiveness of Neurofeedback in Therapy in Children with Mild Autism Spectrum Disorders That Reveal Attention Deficit Disorders","volume":"23","author":"Ochojska","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/OnlineFirst\/58837","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Girls. Co-Occurring Psychopathology. Sex Differences in Clinical Manifestation","volume":"52","author":"Rynkiewicz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Angelo, E., Fiori, F., Ferraro, G.A., Tessitore, A., Nazzaro, L., Serpico, R., and Contaldo, M. (2025). Autism Spectrum Disorder, Oral Implications, and Oral Microbiota. Children, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/children12030368"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adams, K.L., Mandy, W., Catmur, C., and Bird, G. (2024). Potential Mechanisms Underlying the Association between Feeding and Eating Disorders and Autism. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 162.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105717"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, A.A., and Holingue, C. (2024). Co-Occurring Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Eating Disorders (ED): Understanding the Heterogeneity of Study Populations. Rev. J. Autism Dev. Disord., 1\u20134.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40489-024-00466-x"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong, G.C., Montgomery, J.M., and Taylor, M.W. (2021). The Gut-Microbiota-Brain Axis in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Spectrum Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health.","DOI":"10.36255\/exonpublications.autismspectrumdisorders.2021.gutmicrobiota"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Sales-Mill\u00e1n, A., Aguirre-Garrido, J.F., Gonz\u00e1lez-Cervantes, R.M., and Vel\u00e1zquez-Arag\u00f3n, J.A. (2023). Microbiome\u2013Gut\u2013Mucosal\u2013Immune\u2013Brain Axis and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A Novel Proposal of the Role of the Gut Microbiome in ASD Aetiology. Behav. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202305.1223.v1"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olson, A., Krall, J.R., Baranova, A., and Slavin, M. (2025). Nutritional Intake and Sensory Processing in School-Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17040604"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirizzi, P., Esposito, M., Ricciardi, O., Bove, D., Fadda, R., Caff\u00f2, A.O., Mazza, M., and Valenti, M. (2025). Food Selectivity in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and in Typically Developing Peers: Sensory Processing, Parental Practices, and Gastrointestinal Symptoms. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17172798"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.53841\/bpsqmip.2022.1.33.46","article-title":"Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide","volume":"1","author":"Braun","year":"2022","journal-title":"QMiP Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conti, M.V., Breda, C., Basilico, S., Ruggeri, S., Scalvedi, M.L., and Cena, H. (2025). Unlocking the Link: Exploring the Association Between Food Selectivity and Health Outcome in Autism Spectrum Disorder\u2014A Systematic Review. Nutr. Rev., nuaf052.","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuaf052"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"6","article-title":"Tactile Functions. Their Relation to Hyperactive and Perceptual Motor Behavior","volume":"18","author":"Ayres","year":"1964","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e337","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-2391","article-title":"Feeding Symptoms, Dietary Patterns, and Growth in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders","volume":"126","author":"Emond","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiang, X., Yang, T., Chen, J., Chen, L., Dai, Y., Zhang, J., Li, L., Jia, F., Wu, L., and Hao, Y. (2023). Association of Feeding Patterns in Infancy with Later Autism Symptoms and Neurodevelopment: A National Multicentre Survey. BMC Psychiatry, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-023-04667-2"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2018.10.006","article-title":"Increased Zonulin Is Associated with Hyperactivity and Social Dysfunctions in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"87","author":"Appak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salenius, K., V\u00e4lj\u00e4, N., Thusberg, S., Iris, F., Ladd-Acosta, C., Roos, C., Nykter, M., Fasano, A., Autio, R., and Lin, J. (2024). Exploring Autism Spectrum Disorder and Co-Occurring Trait Associations to Elucidate Multivariate Genetic Mechanisms and Insights. BMC Psychiatry, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-024-06392-w"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Troisi, J., Autio, R., Beopoulos, T., Bravaccio, C., Carraturo, F., Corrivetti, G., Cunningham, S., Devane, S., Fallin, D., and Fetissov, S. (2020). Genome, Environment, Microbiome and Metabolome in Autism (GEMMA) Study Design: Biomarkers Identification for Precision Treatment and Primary Prevention of Autism Spectrum Disorders by an Integrated Multi-Omics Systems Biology Approach. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10100743"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Kang, W., Mi, Y., Zhong, X., and He, Y. (2025). The Microbiota\u2013Gut\u2013Brain Axis in Autism: Associations, Causal Inference, and Interventions\u2014A Narrative Review. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14111145"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riccio, M.P., Marino, M., Garotti, R., Tassiello, A., Maffettone, V., Pezone, M., and Bravaccio, C. (2025). Food Selectivity in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Implications of Eating, Sensory and Behavioural Profile. Front. Psychiatry, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1587454"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0013.6198","article-title":"Integrated Self System: A Microgenetic Approach","volume":"17","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, W., Zhang, M., Teng, L., Wang, Y., and Zhu, L. (2022). Prebiotics and Probiotics for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Controlled Clinical Trials. J. Med. Microbiol., 71.","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001510"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.2001.01317.x","article-title":"Fermentations of Fructo-Oligosaccharides and Their Components by Bifidobacterium Infantis ATCC 15697 on Batch Culture in Semi-Synthetic Medium","volume":"90","author":"Perrin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-021-09867-4","article-title":"Compound Probiotics Improve Body Growth Performance by Enhancing Intestinal Development of Broilers with Subclinical Necrotic Enteritis","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ristori, M.V., Quagliariello, A., Reddel, S., Ianiro, G., Vicari, S., Gasbarrini, A., and Putignani, L. (2019). Autism, Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Modulation of Gut Microbiota by Nutritional Interventions. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11112812"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2020.0111","article-title":"Probiotics as a Therapeutic Strategy in Obesity and Overweight: A Systematic Review","volume":"12","author":"Cardona","year":"2021","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-022-00488-4","article-title":"Pharmacological and Dietary-Supplement Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Siafis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Autism"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomaszek, N., Urbaniak, A.D., Ba\u0142dyga, D., Chwesiuk, K., Modzelewski, S., and Waszkiewicz, N. (2025). Unraveling the Connections: Eating Issues, Microbiome, and Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17030486"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22350","article-title":"Prevalence of DSM-5 Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder in a Pediatric Gastroenterology Healthcare Network","volume":"48","author":"Eddy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu, B.A.Z., Morrissey, A., Wu, Y., Castillo, D.A., Becker, R., Wu, T., Fiscella, K., Gill, S., and Xiao, J. (2025). Pica Practices, Anemia, and Oral Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review. BMC Oral. Health, 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-024-05371-7"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2788.2000.00308.x","article-title":"Eating Disorders in Adults with Intellectual Disability","volume":"44","author":"Gravestock","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Intellect. Disabil. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2021.114271","article-title":"Anorexia Nervosa and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review","volume":"306","author":"Boltri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1002\/erv.2244","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorders in Eating Disorder Populations: A Systematic Review","volume":"21","author":"Huke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361317722431","article-title":"Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Anorexia Nervosa: A Naturalistic Study in an Inpatient Treatment Programme","volume":"23","author":"Tchanturia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-020-00896-6","article-title":"Orthorexia Nervosa Inventory (ONI): Development and Validation of a New Measure of Orthorexic Symptomatology","volume":"26","author":"Oberle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eat. Weight Disord."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141ucka, I., Mazur, A., \u0141ucka, A., Sarzy\u0144ska, I., Trojniak, J., and Kopa\u0144ska, M. (2024). Orthorexia as an Eating Disorder Spectrum\u2014A Review of the Literature. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16193304"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2309","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-020-01094-0","article-title":"Do Orthorexia and Intolerance of Uncertainty Mediate the Relationship between Autism Spectrum Traits and Disordered Eating Symptoms?","volume":"26","author":"Giles","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eat. Weight Disord."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-017-0417-6","article-title":"Orthorexia vs. Theories of Healthy Eating","volume":"22","author":"Bratman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eat. Weight Disord."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141ucka, I., Mazur, A., \u0141ucka, A., Trojniak, J., and Kopa\u0144ska, M. (2025). Orthorexia Nervosa Tendencies in Two Cohorts of Polish Young Adults: A Comparative Analysis of Prevalence, Correlates, and Comorbidity. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17132208"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1002\/erv.2932","article-title":"Problematic Eating Behaviours of Autistic Women\u2014A Scoping Review","volume":"30","author":"Danner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-021-01225-1","article-title":"Eating Disturbances in Eating Disorders and in High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Preliminary Study","volume":"27","author":"Faggioli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eat. Weight Disord."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2019.04.002","article-title":"Atypical Eating Behaviors in Children and Adolescents with Autism, ADHD, Other Disorders, and Typical Development","volume":"64","author":"Mayes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Autism Spectr. Disord."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102440","article-title":"Subtypes of Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder in Children and Adolescents: A Latent Class Analysis","volume":"68","author":"Neale","year":"2024","journal-title":"eClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.01.169","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder Traits Are Associated with Empathic Abilities in Adults with Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"266","author":"Harrison","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kerr-Gaffney, J., Mason, L., Jones, E., Hayward, H., Ahmad, J., Harrison, A., Loth, E., Murphy, D., and Tchanturia, K. (2020). Emotion Recognition Abilities in Adults with Anorexia Nervosa Are Associated with Autistic Traits. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9041057"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1002\/erv.1069","article-title":"Is Anorexia Nervosa a Version of Autism Spectrum Disorders?","volume":"19","author":"Oldershaw","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-017-0791-9","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder in Anorexia Nervosa: An Updated Literature Review","volume":"19","author":"Westwood","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22007","article-title":"Neuropsychological Weaknesses in Anorexia Nervosa: Set-Shifting, Central Coherence, and Decision Making in Currently Ill and Recovered Women","volume":"45","author":"Danner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.41.2.236-b","article-title":"The Biology of Human Starvation","volume":"41","author":"Tobey","year":"1951","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health Nations Health"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tchanturia, K., Davies, H., Roberts, M., Harrison, A., Nakazato, M., Schmidt, U., Treasure, J., and Morris, R. (2012). Poor Cognitive Flexibility in Eating Disorders: Examining the Evidence Using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0028331"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2020.101905","article-title":"Cognitive Flexibility in Acute Anorexia Nervosa and after Recovery: A Systematic Review","volume":"81","author":"Miles","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-018-1188-y","article-title":"Do Autism Spectrum Disorder and Anorexia Nervosa Have Some Eating Disturbances in Common?","volume":"28","author":"Karjalainen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbct.2020.09.001","article-title":"Looking beneath the Surface: Distinguishing between Common Features in Autism and Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"31","author":"Kinnaird","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Behav. Cogn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1080\/09540261.2018.1531831","article-title":"Same Behaviours, Different Reasons: What Do Patients with Co-Occurring Anorexia and Autism Want from Treatment?","volume":"31","author":"Kinnaird","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2023). National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). The Grants Register 2024, Springer."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04087","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.13.04087","article-title":"Overall Proportion of Orthorexia Nervosa Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Including 30 476 Individuals from 18 Countries","volume":"13","author":"Hershey","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852924002256","article-title":"Prevalence of Orthorexia Nervosa in Clinical and Non-Clinical Populations: A Systematic Review","volume":"29","author":"Carpita","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361320942087","article-title":"Increased Emotional Eating Behaviors in Children with Autism: Sex Differences and Links with Dietary Variety","volume":"25","author":"Wallace","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1080\/10640266.2019.1642036","article-title":"Emotion Regulation and Emotional Eating in Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa","volume":"29","author":"Meule","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20399","article-title":"Binge Antecedents in Bulimic Syndromes: An Examination of Dissociation and Negative Affect","volume":"40","author":"Engelberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3308","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-015-2490-x","article-title":"Food Selectivity, Mealtime Behavior Problems, Spousal Stress, and Family Food Choices in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"45","author":"Curtin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S224779","article-title":"Eating and Mealtime Behaviors in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Current Perspectives","volume":"16","author":"Margari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"99649","article-title":"Nutritional Management and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review","volume":"13","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.5765\/jkacap.230063","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder and Eating Problems: The Imbalance of Gut Microbiota and the Gut-Brain Axis Hypothesis","volume":"35","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Korean Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-024-00930-8","article-title":"Dietary Intake and Gastrointestinal Symptoms Are Altered in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Relative Contribution of Autism-Linked Traits","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"e77129","article-title":"Vitamin A Deficiency in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"17","author":"Ozawa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-025-01271-5","article-title":"Re-Imagining Connection: The Role of Late Autism Diagnosis in Eating Disorder Recovery and Social Support","volume":"13","author":"Downs","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simeon, R., Galeoto, G., Cracolici, S., Panuccio, F., and Berardi, A. (2025). Treatments for Eating Disorders in People with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Scoping Review. Pediatr. Rep., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/pediatric17020035"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Zhang, L., Li, S., Zhao, F., Wang, Y., Huang, L., Huang, J., Zou, R., Qu, Y., and Mu, D. (2017). Association among Obesity, Overweight and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-12003-4"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goldschlager, J., Cintron, C., Hall, R., Shields, T., Tolbert, G.L., Woldebirhan, R., Agarwal, K., and Joseph, P.V. (2025). Taste Processing in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Translational Scoping Review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 170.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106031"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Curtin, C., Anderson, S.E., Must, A., and Bandini, L. (2010). The Prevalence of Obesity in Children with Autism: A Secondary Data Analysis Using Nationally Representative Data from the National Survey of Children\u2019s Health. BMC Pediatr., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-10-11"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dudzikowska, M., R\u0119bak, D., Gotlib-Ma\u0142kowska, J., Chmielewski, J., Sierpi\u0144ski, R., Go\u017adziewska, M., P\u0105chalska, M., and Szenk, P. (2025). Effect of Overweight and Obesity on Clinical Course and Prognosis in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndromes. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med.","DOI":"10.26444\/aaem\/213894"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuentes-Albero, M., Mafla-Espa\u00f1a, M.A., Mart\u00ednez-Raga, J., and Cauli, O. (2025). Association Between Sleep Disturbance and Behavioral Feeding Problems in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Diseases, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases13090280"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopa\u0144ska, M., and Trojniak, J. (2025). From Aberrant Brainwaves to Altered Plasticity: A Review of QEEG Biomarkers and Neurofeedback in the Neurobiological Landscape of ADHD. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14171339"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chmiel, J., Kopa\u0144ska, M., Leszek, J., Trojniak, J., and Ros, T. (2025). EEG Neurofeedback for the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain in the Elderly\u2014A Mechanistic Review. Geroscience.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-025-01848-7"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopanska, M., Ochojska, D., Trojniak, J., Kawala-Sterniuk, A., Mikolajewski, D., Karwowski, W., Al-Bakri, A.F., Sterniuk, P., and Szczygielski, J. (2025). Analysis of the Cannabidiol Effects in Epilepsy Treatment Based on Seizure Characteristics in EEG Recordings\u2014A Review. Epileptic Disord., 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1002\/epd2.70085"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0055.2695","article-title":"Event-Related Potentials (ERP) in the Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD and ASD: Towards Personalized Neuropsychology","volume":"23","author":"Pachalska","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/23\/3714\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T08:38:08Z","timestamp":1764319088000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/23\/3714"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu17233714"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu17233714","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]}}}