{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T21:52:35Z","timestamp":1788299555399,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"National Science Center Poland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021\/43\/O\/HS6\/02074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021\/43\/O\/HS6\/02074"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Mood disturbances, often accompanied by cognitive deficits, represent a major public health challenge. Diet is increasingly recognized as a modifiable factor in mental health, with specific nutrients such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) showing therapeutic potential. This study investigated whether dietary omega-3 intake moderates variations in cognitive performance associated with psychological symptoms in non-clinical samples. Method: A total of 313 healthy adults completed a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess dietary intake. Psychological symptoms were measured using the depression screening questionnaire (PHQ-9) and the stress assessment instrument (PSS-10), while cognitive performance, including short-term and episodic memory, was evaluated using Sternberg and Old\/New recognition tests. A subgroup of 52 older adults completed a detailed in-person FFQ to enable the precise quantification of EPA, DHA, and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) intake. Results: Diets rich in omega 3, particularly nuts, seeds, fish and seafood, were associated with lower depression and stress scores. EPA and DHA, but not ALA, were specifically linked to those mood benefits. However, dietary omega-3 intake was not significantly associated with cognitive performance and did not moderate the relationship between mood and memory. Self-reported omega-3 supplementation was linked to fewer depressive symptoms and better episodic memory. Conclusions: While dietary omega-3 is associated with improved well-being, its role in cognition in healthy adults is not well-established and warrants further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18010050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T14:27:47Z","timestamp":1766500067000},"page":"50","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Nourishing the Brain or the Mood? Dietary Omega-3s for Psychological, but Not Cognitive Health"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8680-6420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakub","family":"Or\u0142owski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, SWPS University, 03-815 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4075-0455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Kossowska-Wywia\u0142","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, SWPS University, 03-815 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1950-4180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aneta","family":"Brzezicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, SWPS University, 03-815 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31948-2","article-title":"Depression","volume":"392","author":"Malhi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3611","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291722000241","article-title":"The Prevalence and Risk of Developing Major Depression among Individuals with Subthreshold Depression in the General Population","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01738-y","article-title":"Major Depressive Disorder: Hypothesis, Mechanism, Prevention and Treatment","volume":"9","author":"Cui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortega, M.A., Fraile-Mart\u00ednez, \u00d3., Garc\u00eda-Montero, C., Alvarez-Mon, M.A., Lahera, G., Monserrat, J., Llavero-Valero, M., Guti\u00e9rrez-Rojas, L., Molina, R., and Rodr\u00edguez-Jimenez, R. (2022). Biological Role of Nutrients, Food and Dietary Patterns in the Prevention and Clinical Management of Major Depressive Disorder. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14153099"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Estrada, J.A., and Contreras, I. (2019). Nutritional Modulation of Immune and Central Nervous System Homeostasis: The Role of Diet in Development of Neuroinflammation and Neurological Disease. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11051076"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2010-100942","article-title":"Nutraceutical Properties of Mediterranean Diet and Cognitive Decline: Possible Underlying Mechanisms","volume":"22","author":"Frisardi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2012-304792","article-title":"Mediterranean Diet Improves Cognition: The PREDIMED-NAVARRA Randomised Trial","volume":"84","author":"Clavero","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.3945\/an.116.012187","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Oxylipins in Neuroinflammation and Management of Alzheimer Disease","volume":"7","author":"Devassy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malau, I.A., Chang, J.P.-C., Lin, Y.-W., Chang, C.-C., Chiu, W.-C., and Su, K.-P. (2024). Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Neuroinflammation in Depression: Targeting Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns and Neural Biomarkers. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13211791"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dyall, S.C. (2015). Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids and the Brain: A Review of the Independent and Shared Effects of EPA, DPA and DHA. Front. Aging Neurosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2015.00052"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2009.10719785","article-title":"EPA but Not DHA Appears to Be Responsible for the Efficacy of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation in Depression: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"28","author":"Martins","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basile, G.A., Iannuzzo, F., Xerra, F., Genovese, G., Pandolfo, G., Cedro, C., Muscatello, M.R.A., and Bruno, A. (2023). Cognitive and Mood Effect of Alpha-Lipoic Acid Supplementation in a Nonclinical Elder Sample: An Open-Label Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20032358"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0515-5","article-title":"Efficacy of Omega-3 PUFAs in Depression: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Liao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.2019.234","article-title":"Omega-3 and Polyunsaturated Fat for Prevention of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Trials","volume":"218","author":"Deane","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.161.3.567","article-title":"Is Low Dietary Intake of Omega-3 Fatty Acids Associated with Depression?","volume":"161","author":"Hakkarainen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20822","article-title":"Dietary Intake of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Risk of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents","volume":"28","author":"Oddy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Concei\u00e7\u00e3o Silva Chaves, R., Aguiar, O.B., Moreno, A.B., Brunoni, A.R., Del Carmem B Molina, M., Viana, M.C., Benso\u00f1or, I., Griep, R.H., and De Jesus Mendes Da Fonseca, M. (2022). Consumption of Omega-3 and Maintenance and Incidence of Depressive Episodes: The ELSA-Brasil Study. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14153227"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"182","article-title":"Fatty Acid Intake and Prevalence of Depression among Brazilian Graduates and Postgraduates (CUME Study)","volume":"346","author":"Bressan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2023.04.001","article-title":"The Relationship of Omega-3 Fatty Acids with Dementia and Cognitive Decline: Evidence from Prospective Cohort Studies of Supplementation, Dietary Intake, and Blood Markers","volume":"117","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-021-02655-4","article-title":"Dietary and Supplemental Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids as Moderators of Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"61","author":"Wood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Qualtrics (2020). Qualtrics [Software], Qualtrics. Available online: https:\/\/www.qualtrics.com."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-01193-y","article-title":"PsychoPy2: Experiments in Behavior Made Easy","volume":"51","author":"Peirce","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(75)90026-6","article-title":"Mini-Mental State","volume":"12","author":"Folstein","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"27","article-title":"Walidacja kwestionariusza cz\u0119stotliwo\u015bci spo\u017cycia \u017cywno\u015bci\u2014FFQ. Ocena powtarzalno\u015bci [Validation of food frequency questionnaire\u2014FFQ. Reproducibility assessment]","volume":"XXXVIII","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bromatol. Chem. Toksykol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Gaw\u0119cki, J. (2024). KomPAN\u00ae Kwestionariusz do badania pogl\u0105d\u00f3w i zwyczaj\u00f3w \u017cywieniowych dla m\u0142odzie\u017cy w wieku 16\u201318 lat i doros\u0142ych, wersja 2.1\u2014Kwestionariusz administrowany przez ankietera-badacza. KomPAN\u00ae Kwestionariusz do Badania Pogl\u0105d\u00f3w i Zwyczaj\u00f3w \u017bywieniowych oraz Procedura Opracowania Danych, Wydawnictwo Komitetu Nauki o \u017bywieniu Cz\u0142owieka Polskiej Akademii Nauk."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"209","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Sources, Industrial Applications, and Health Benefits","volume":"13","author":"Saidaiah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Phytomed. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Szponar, L., Wolnicka, K., and Rychlik, E. (2001). Album Fotografii Produkt\u00f3w i Potraw, Instytut \u017bywno\u015bci i \u017bywienia."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ilewazy.pl (2024, April 26). Available online: http:\/\/www.ilewazy.pl."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Kunachowicz, H., Przygoda, B., Nadolna, I., and Iwanow, K. (2020). Tabele Sk\u0142adu i Warto\u015bci Od\u017cywczej \u017bywno\u015bci, PZWL Wydawnictwo Lekarskie."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"223","article-title":"Walidacja polskiej wersji j\u0119zykowej Patient Health Questionnaire-9 w populacji hospitalizowanych os\u00f3b starszych [Validation of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 Polish version in the hospitalised elderly population]","volume":"45","author":"Tomaszewski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Juczy\u0144ski, Z., and Ogi\u0144ska-Bulik, N. (2009). PSS-10\u2013Skala Odczuwanego Stresu [PSS-10\u2013Perceived Stress Scale]. Narz\u0105dzia Pomiaru Stresu i Radzenia Sobie ze Stresem [Tools for Measuring Stress and Coping with Stress], Pracownia Test\u00f3w Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Macmillan, N.A., and Creelman, C.D. (2005). Detection Theory: A User\u2019s Guide, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04171","article-title":"Neural Measures Reveal Individual Differences in Controlling Access to Working Memory","volume":"438","author":"Vogel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12335","DOI":"10.1111\/appy.12335","article-title":"Fish Consumption and Risk of Depression: Epidemiological Evidence from Prospective Studies","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asia-Pac. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2023.07.020","article-title":"Nut Consumption Is Associated with a Lower Risk of Depression in Adults: A Prospective Analysis with Data from the UK Biobank Cohort","volume":"42","author":"Medrano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2013.12.050","article-title":"Nigella Sativa L. Seeds Modulate Mood, Anxiety and Cognition in Healthy Adolescent Males","volume":"152","author":"Sayeed","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larrieu, T., and Lay\u00e9, S. (2018). Food for Mood: Relevance of Nutritional Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Depression and Anxiety. Front. Physiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.01047"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.011817","article-title":"Dietary Intake of N\u22123 and N\u22126 Fatty Acids and the Risk of Clinical Depression in Women: A 10-y Prospective Follow-up Study","volume":"93","author":"Lucas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-024-02823-6","article-title":"Fish Consumption, Cognitive Impairment and Dementia: An Updated Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies","volume":"36","author":"Godos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2010.07.015","article-title":"Recognition Memory for Pictorial Material in Subclinical Depression","volume":"135","author":"Ramponi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2007.02.007","article-title":"The Effects of Stress and Stress Hormones on Human Cognition: Implications for the Field of Brain and Cognition","volume":"65","author":"Lupien","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30610","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-16129-8","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Dose Response Meta Analysis of Omega 3 Supplementation on Cognitive Function","volume":"15","author":"Shahinfar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2015.01.007","article-title":"Does Reverse Causality Explain the Relationship between Diet and Depression?","volume":"175","author":"Jacka","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa420","article-title":"\u03c9-3 Ethyl Ester Results in Better Cognitive Function at 12 and 30 Months than Control in Cognitively Healthy Subjects with Coronary Artery Disease: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"113","author":"Malik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohan, D.S.R., Jawahir, S., Manual, A., Mutalib, N.E.A., Noh, S.N.M., Rahim, I.A., Hamid, J.A., and Nordin, A.A. (2025). Gender Differences in Health-Seeking Behaviour: Insights from the National Health and Morbidity Survey 2019. BMC Health Serv. Res., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-025-13020-0"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1177\/0253717620957496","article-title":"The Limitations of Online Surveys","volume":"42","author":"Andrade","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pruneti, C., and Guidotti, S. (2023). Need for Multidimensional and Multidisciplinary Management of Depressed Preadolescents and Adolescents: A Review of Randomized Controlled Trials on Oral Supplementations (Omega-3, Fish Oil, Vitamin D3). Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15102306"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.21187","article-title":"Effect of Long-Term Supplementation With Marine Omega-3 Fatty Acids vs Placebo on Risk of Depression or Clinically Relevant Depressive Symptoms and on Change in Mood Scores","volume":"326","author":"Okereke","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2008.03.003","article-title":"Fatty Acid Composition of Adipose Tissue and Blood in Humans and Its Use as a Biomarker of Dietary Intake","volume":"47","author":"Hodson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2014.05.037","article-title":"Regular Fish Consumption and Age-Related Brain Gray Matter Loss","volume":"47","author":"Raji","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/1\/50\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T14:38:11Z","timestamp":1766500691000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/1\/50"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18010050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18010050","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]}}}