{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T14:38:59Z","timestamp":1782484739747,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Atherosclerosis (AS) is the primary pathological basis for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events, with its development closely linked to dyslipidemia and chronic inflammation. The gut\u2013liver axis, serving as a core bridge connecting gut microbiota, hepatic metabolism, and systemic inflammation, has gained increasing prominence in AS pathogenesis. Phytochemicals exhibit multifaceted biological activities, yet their mechanisms for preventing and treating AS via the gut\u2013liver axis remain to be systematically summarized. This review aims to summarize the potential mechanisms of phytochemicals interventions in AS from an intestinal\u2013hepatic axis perspective. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase, focusing on previously published articles, reviews, and meta-analyses. Keywords included \u201cphytochemicals\u201d, \u201cflavonoids\u201d, \u201catherosclerosis\u201d, \u201cAS\u201d, \u201cgut\u2013liver axis\u201d, \u201cgut axis\u201d, \u201cintestinal axis\u201d, \u201cgut microbiota\u201d and \u201cTMAO\u201d. This narrative review synthesizes current research evidence on the interactions among phytochemicals, the gut\u2013liver axis, and atherosclerosis, summarizing their action pathways and molecular mechanisms. Results: Phytochemicals (such as polyphenols, carotenoids, saponins, etc.) have low bioavailability but can be metabolized and transformed by gut microbiota. Through multiple mechanisms\u2014including modulating gut microbiota composition, enhancing intestinal barrier function, regulating bile acid metabolism, and exerting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects\u2014they positively influence gut\u2013liver axis function. This alleviates lipid metabolism disorders, suppresses systemic inflammation, and thereby combats the onset and progression of atherosclerosis at multiple stages. Conclusions: Phytochemicals can intervene in the progression of atherosclerosis through the gut\u2013liver axis. Future studies should further investigate dose\u2013response relationships and conduct clinical validation to determine optimal usage strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18020188","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T13:49:46Z","timestamp":1767707386000},"page":"188","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effects of Phytochemicals on Atherosclerosis: Based on the Gut\u2013Liver Axis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8760-9332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiming","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0028-8564","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weiwei","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2214275","article-title":"Guidance on Energy and Macronutrients across the Life Span","volume":"390","author":"Heymsfield","year":"2024","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/78.3.544S","article-title":"Plant-based foods and prevention of cardiovascular disease: An overview","volume":"78","author":"Hu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Y., Liu, J., He, L., Jiang, J., Gong, T., Zhou, Q., Li, Q., Liu, J., Tang, N., and Chen, Z. (2025). Integrative analysis of the transcriptome and metabolome reveals the peel coloration mechanism of Zanthoxylum armatum. BMC Plant Biol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12870-025-07564-w"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199901143400207","article-title":"Atherosclerosis\u2014An inflammatory disease","volume":"340","author":"Ross","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risks 2023 Collaborators (2025). Global, Regional, and National Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990\u20132023. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 86, 2167\u20132243."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1111\/pin.13202","article-title":"Atherosclerosis: Known and unknown","volume":"72","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathol. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.120.316242","article-title":"Gut Microbiota and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"127","author":"Witkowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2275","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.7601","article-title":"Human digestion\u2014A processing perspective","volume":"96","author":"Boland","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eraghieh Farahani, H., Pourhajibagher, M., Asgharzadeh, S., and Bahador, A. (Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins, 2025). Postbiotics: Novel Modulators of Gut Health, Metabolism, and Their Mechanisms of Action, Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins, Advance online publication.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-025-10832-8"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izae232","article-title":"Intestinal Epithelial Tight Junction Barrier Regulation by Novel Pathways","volume":"31","author":"Arumugam","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Massier, L., Bl\u00fcher, M., Kovacs, P., and Chakaroun, R.M. (2021). Impaired Intestinal Barrier and Tissue Bacteria: Pathomechanisms for Metabolic Diseases. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.616506"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-022-00352-6","article-title":"Host-microbiome interactions: Gut-Liver axis and its connection with other organs","volume":"8","author":"Anand","year":"2022","journal-title":"npj Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00904-3","article-title":"The gut-liver axis and gut microbiota in health and liver disease","volume":"21","author":"Hsu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., van Esch, B.C.A.M., Henricks, P.A.J., Folkerts, G., and Garssen, J. (2018). The Anti-inflammatory Effects of Short Chain Fatty Acids on Lipopolysaccharide- or Tumor Necrosis Factor \u03b1-Stimulated Endothelial Cells via Activation of GPR41\/43 and Inhibition of HDACs. Front. Pharmacol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.00533"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2024.123304","article-title":"Trimethylamine N-oxide in cardiovascular disease: Pathophysiology and the potential role of statins","volume":"361","author":"Latif","year":"2025","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.02.011","article-title":"Gut Microbial Metabolite TMAO Enhances Platelet Hyperreactivity and Thrombosis Risk","volume":"165","author":"Zhu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganesan, R., Thirumurugan, D., Vinayagam, S., Kim, D.J., Suk, K.T., Iyer, M., Yadav, M.K., HariKrishnaReddy, D., Parkash, J., and Wander, A. (2025). A critical review of microbiome-derived metabolic functions and translational research in liver diseases. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1488874"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dobre, M.Z., Virgolici, B., Doicin, I.C., V\u00eergolici, H., and Stanescu-Spinu, I.I. (2025). Navigating the Effects of Anti-Atherosclerotic Supplements and Acknowledging Associated Bleeding Risks. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262010183"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"157373","article-title":"Dietary fiber pectin supplement attenuates atherosclerosis through promoting Akkermansia-related acetic acid metabolism","volume":"148","author":"Mao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phytomed. Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiertsema, S.P., van Bergenhenegouwen, J., Garssen, J., and Knippels, L.M.J. (2021). The Interplay between the Gut Microbiome and the Immune System in the Context of Infectious Diseases throughout Life and the Role of Nutrition in Optimizing Treatment Strategies. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030886"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.01.003","article-title":"Rapid transcriptional and metabolic adaptation of intestinal microbes to host immune activation","volume":"29","author":"Becattini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2024.107231","article-title":"Synergistic interactions between gut microbiota and short chain fatty acids: Pioneering therapeutic frontiers in chronic disease management","volume":"199","author":"Yi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinninella, E., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Franceschi, F., Miggiano, G.A.D., Gasbarrini, A., and Mele, M.C. (2019). What is the Healthy Gut Microbiota Composition? A Changing Ecosystem across Age. Environment, Diet, and Diseases. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7010014"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"421","article-title":"Actinobacteria: A relevant minority for the maintenance of gut homeostasis","volume":"50","author":"Binda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dig. Liver Dis. Off. J. Ital. Soc. Gastroenterol. Ital. Assoc. Study Liver"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2025.128046","article-title":"Bridging dietary polysaccharides and gut microbiome: How to achieve precision modulation for gut health promotion","volume":"292","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexandrescu, L., Suceveanu, A.P., Stanigut, A.M., Tofolean, D.E., Axelerad, A.D., Iordache, I.E., Herlo, A., Nelson Twakor, A., Nicoara, A.D., and Tocia, C. (2024). Intestinal Insights: The Gut Microbiome\u2019s Role in Atherosclerotic Disease: A Narrative Review. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12112341"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2023.03.009","article-title":"Recent advances in the gut microbiome and microbial metabolites alterations of coronary artery disease","volume":"68","author":"Dai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09263-w","article-title":"Imidazole propionate is a driver and therapeutic target in atherosclerosis","volume":"645","author":"Mastrangelo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Lyu, J., Zhao, R., Liu, G., and Wang, S. (2023). Gut macrobiotic and its metabolic pathways modulate cardiovascular disease. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1272479"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1038\/s44161-025-00637-x","article-title":"The gut microbiota-bile acid-TGR5 axis orchestrates platelet activation and atherothrombosis","volume":"4","author":"Qi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2020.12.003","article-title":"Butyrate in Energy Metabolism: There Is Still More to Learn","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab. TEM"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2012.09.010","article-title":"Analysis of fecal microbiota, organic acids and plasma lipids in hepatic cancer patients with or without liver cirrhosis","volume":"32","author":"Usami","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, M., Gao, K., Peng, K., Bi, S., Cui, X., and Liu, Y. (2025). A Review of Nutritional Regulation of Intestinal Butyrate Synthesis: Interactions Between Dietary Polysaccharides and Proteins. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14213649"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36126","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-22890-7","article-title":"Biophysical and transcriptomic characterization of LL-37-derived antimicrobial peptide targeting multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and ESKAPE pathogens","volume":"15","author":"Eladl","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1964317","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.1964317","article-title":"The prospect of orally administered monoclonal secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies to prevent enteric bacterial infections","volume":"18","author":"Richards","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhuo, X., Luo, H., Lei, R., Lou, X., Bian, J., Guo, J., Luo, H., Zhang, X., Jiao, Q., and Gong, W. (2023). Association between Intestinal Microecological Changes and Atherothrombosis. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11051223"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2025.114681","article-title":"Nor-halimane and spiro-labdane diterpenoids with anti-inflammatory activity from Leucas ciliata Benth","volume":"241","author":"Kuang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Tian, J., Lei, M., Zhong, C., and Zhang, Y. (2022). Association between dietary fiber intake and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk in adults: A cross-sectional study of 14,947 population based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-13419-y"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2025.2525901","article-title":"Faecal short-chain fatty acids and nutritional factors in Thai adults with hypercholesterolaemia compared to normocholesterolemic subjects","volume":"76","author":"Thiyajai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., van Esch, B.C., Henricks, P.A., Garssen, J., and Folkerts, G. (2021). IL-33 Is Involved in the Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Butyrate and Propionate on TNF\u03b1-Activated Endothelial Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22052447"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-21-0766","article-title":"Gut Microbiome-Dependent Metabolic Pathways and Risk of Lethal Prostate Cancer: Prospective Analysis of a PLCO Cancer Screening Trial Cohort","volume":"31","author":"Reichard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caradonna, E., Abate, F., Schiano, E., Paparella, F., Ferrara, F., Vanoli, E., Difruscolo, R., Goffredo, V.M., Amato, B., and Setacci, C. (2025). Trimethylamine-N-Oxide (TMAO) as a Rising-Star Metabolite: Implications for Human Health. Metabolites, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo15040220"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jing, J., Guo, J., Dai, R., Zhu, C., and Zhang, Z. (2023). Targeting gut microbiota and immune crosstalk: Potential mechanisms of natural products in the treatment of atherosclerosis. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1252907"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"91","article-title":"TMAO induces macrophage activation via the CD147\/MMPs pathway","volume":"38","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-07224-5","article-title":"A systematic review of TMAO, microRNAs, and the oral\/gut microbiomes in atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction: Mechanistic insights and translational opportunities","volume":"23","author":"Motte","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.016","article-title":"A Cardiovascular Disease-Linked Gut Microbial Metabolite Acts via Adrenergic Receptors","volume":"180","author":"Nemet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Li, J., Li, L., and Yuan, X. (2025). Gut microbiota on cardiovascular diseases-a mini review on current evidence. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1690411"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-08379-9","article-title":"Host metabolism balances microbial regulation of bile acid signalling","volume":"638","author":"Won","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1186\/s13020-025-01116-y","article-title":"ZeXieYin formula alleviates atherosclerosis by regulating SBAs levels through the FXR\/FGF15 pathway and restoring intestinal barrier integrity","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"849","article-title":"Interaction between gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism","volume":"33","author":"Zeng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. J. Microecol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-024-00566-w","article-title":"Effects of bile acids on the growth, composition and metabolism of gut bacteria","volume":"10","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"e94362","article-title":"The Role Played by Imidazole Propionic Acid in Modulating Gut-Heart Axis and the Development of Atherosclerosis: An Explorative Review","volume":"17","author":"Pinnelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nexres.2025.100846","article-title":"From dysbiosis to therapy: Shared gut microbial signatures and targeted interventions across liver, heart and brain disorders","volume":"2","author":"Gundogdu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Next Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellin.2025.100265","article-title":"Microbiota-derived bile acid metabolic enzymes and their impacts on host health","volume":"4","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Insight"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R036012","article-title":"The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism","volume":"54","author":"Groen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2002-0120","article-title":"Bile acids induce the expression of the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha gene via activation of the farnesoid X receptor","volume":"17","author":"Claudel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, H., Yang, L., Liu, Y., Yan, R., Wang, R., Zhang, P., Bai, Z., Liu, Y., Ren, Y., and Li, Y. (2023). Butyrate suppresses atherosclerotic inflammation by regulating macrophages and polarization via GPR43\/HDAC-miRNAs axis in ApoE-\/- mice. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0282685"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22504","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0912487106","article-title":"PPARgamma activation in adipocytes is sufficient for systemic insulin sensitization","volume":"106","author":"Sugii","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.108.177105","article-title":"Interferon-gamma, a Th1 cytokine, regulates fat inflammation: A role for adaptive immunity in obesity","volume":"103","author":"Rocha","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"154208","article-title":"The improvement of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis by Poria cocos polysaccharides associated with gut microbiota and NF-\u03baB\/CCL3\/CCR1 axis","volume":"103","author":"Tan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phytomed. Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1253227","article-title":"The role of inflammation in cholestasis: Clinical and basic aspects","volume":"30","author":"Kosters","year":"2010","journal-title":"Semin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakadate, K., Saitoh, H., Sakaguchi, M., Miruno, F., Muramatsu, N., Ito, N., Tadokoro, K., and Kawakami, K. (2025). Advances in Understanding Lipopolysaccharide-Mediated Hepatitis: Mechanisms and Pathological Features. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol., 47.","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47020079"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-011-0080-x","article-title":"Modulation of lipopolysaccha-ride-induced pro-inflammatory mediators by an extract of Glycyrrhiza glabra and its phytoconstituents","volume":"19","author":"Thiyagarajan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2025.147049","article-title":"Gut microbiota modulation by polysaccharide from Aloe gel: Potential prebiotic and targeted regulatory effects","volume":"497","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Zamora, L. (2025). Novel Ingredients: Hydroxytyrosol as a Neuroprotective Agent; What Is New on the Horizon?. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14213624"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Huang, H., Yang, Y., Yang, X., Li, X., Zhong, W., Wen, B., He, F., and Li, J. (2024). Reinventing gut health: Leveraging dietary bioactive compounds for the prevention and treatment of diseases. Front. Nutr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2024.1491821"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1186\/s13568-025-01986-3","article-title":"Akkermansia muciniphila alleviates metabolic disorders through gut microbiota-mediated tryptophan regulation","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"AMB Express"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2025.124687","article-title":"Starch-EGCG complex enhances EGCG bioavailability through microbial metabolism and ameliorates metabolic-associated fatty liver disease via gut-liver axis","volume":"373","author":"Zhou","year":"2026","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.115868","article-title":"Licorice flavonoid alleviates gastric ulcers by producing changes in gut microbiota and promoting mucus cell regeneration","volume":"169","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother. Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2021.05.006","article-title":"Sodium Butyrate Supplementation Inhibits Hepatic Steatosis by Stimulating Liver Kinase B1 and Insulin-Induced Gene","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s10020-022-00463-y","article-title":"Resveratrol ameliorates liver fibrosis induced by nonpathogenic Staphylococcus in BALB\/c mice through inhibiting its growth","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verediano, T.A., Stampini Duarte Martino, H., Dias Paes, M.C., and Tako, E. (2021). Effects of Anthocyanin on Intestinal Health: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041331"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2024.114353","article-title":"Colon-targeted self-assembled nanoparticles loaded with berberine double salt ameliorate ulcerative colitis by improving intestinal mucosal barrier and gut microbiota","volume":"245","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2765","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2017.6321","article-title":"Berberine protects against diet-induced obesity through regulating metabolic endotoxemia and gut hormone levels","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Chen, M. (2019). Role and Mechanism of the \u201cGut Microbiota-Endocannabinoid System\u201d in Resveratrol Prevention and Treatment of NAFLD; Publication No. 2019283125. [Ph.D. Thesis, Army Medical University, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI)]."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109062","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2020.109062","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 alleviates ANIT-induced intrahepatic cholestasis in rats via activating farnesoid X receptor and regulating transporters and metabolic enzymes","volume":"324","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2024.06.028","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rh4 inhibits colorectal cancer via the modulation of gut microbiota-mediated bile acid metabolism","volume":"72","author":"Bai","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1186\/s13020-025-01251-6","article-title":"Berberine ameliorates high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorders through promoting gut Akkermansia and modulating bile acid metabolism","volume":"20","author":"Hang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2412865","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202412865","article-title":"Quercetin-Driven Akkermansia muciniphila Alleviates Obesity by Modulating Bile Acid Metabolism via an ILA\/m6A\/CYP8B1 Signaling","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5025237","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/5025237","article-title":"Hepatoprotective Mechanism of Ginsenoside Rg1 against Alcoholic Liver Damage Based on Gut Microbiota and Network Pharmacology","volume":"2022","author":"Xia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, N., Zhang, Y., Yao, C., Huang, H., Wang, Q., Huang, S., He, Q., and Liu, X. (2022). Ginsenosides Rb1 Attenuates Chronic Social Defeat Stress-Induced Depressive Behavior via Regulation of SIRT1-NLRP3\/Nrf2 Pathways. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.868833"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13066","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.1c04933","article-title":"Sulforaphane Regulates Glucose and Lipid Metabolisms in Obese Mice by Restraining JNK and Activating Insulin and FGF21 Signal Pathways","volume":"69","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-020-00492-9","article-title":"Dietary protocatechuic acid ameliorates inflammation and up-regulates intestinal tight junction proteins by modulating gut microbiota in LPS-challenged piglets","volume":"11","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1007\/s10565-024-09953-7","article-title":"Protocatechuic acid relieves ferroptosis in hepatic lipotoxicity and steatosis via regulating NRF2 signaling pathway","volume":"40","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4166","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.15159","article-title":"Sirtuin 3-mediated deacetylation of acyl-CoA synthetase family member 3 by protocatechuic acid attenuates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"177","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11557","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO02906A","article-title":"Cholesterol-lowering activity of protocatechuic acid is mediated by increasing the excretion of bile acids and modulating gut microbiota and producing short-chain fatty acids","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Godos, J., Romano, G.L., Gozzo, L., Laudani, S., Paladino, N., Dominguez Azp\u00edroz, I., Mart\u00ednez L\u00f3pez, N.M., Giampieri, F., Quiles, J.L., and Battino, M. (2024). Resveratrol and vascular health: Evidence from clinical studies and mechanisms of actions related to its metabolites produced by gut microbiota. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1368949"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4313","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.14323","article-title":"Resveratrol inhibits lipid accumulation in the intestine of atherosclerotic mice and macrophages","volume":"23","author":"Ye","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Guan, Y. (2022). Resveratrol Reduces Hepatic ApoCIII Expression Through HNF-4\u03b1 and FoxO1 to Affect Blood Lipids. [Ph.D. Thesis, Hebei Medical University]."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2024.103095","article-title":"Factors driving the inter-individual variability in the metabolism and bioavailability of (poly)phenolic metabolites: A systematic review of human studies","volume":"71","author":"Favari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terao, J. (2023). Potential Role of Quercetin Glycosides as Anti-Atherosclerotic Food-Derived Factors for Human Health. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12020258"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2012.11.010","article-title":"Quercetin up-regulates expressions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor \u03b3, liver X receptor \u03b1, and ATP binding cassette transporter A1 genes and increases cholesterol efflux in human macrophage cell line","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"2511","article-title":"Mechanism of quercetin against atherosclerosis via HMGB1\/TLR4 pathway","volume":"14","author":"Zeng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab. Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dabeek, W.M., and Marra, M.V. (2019). Dietary Quercetin and Kaempferol: Bioavailability and Potential Cardiovascular-Related Bioactivity in Humans. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102288"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1080\/07388551.2022.2041540","article-title":"Microbial torularhodin\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"43","author":"Mussagy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3338","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-58500-3","article-title":"The carotenoid torularhodin alleviates NAFLD by promoting Akkermanisa muniniphila-mediated adenosylcobalamin metabolism","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-08792-8","article-title":"Sensing ceramides by CYSLTR2 and P2RY6 to aggravate atherosclerosis","volume":"641","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2022.105221","article-title":"Crocin mitigates atherosclerotic progression in LDLR knockout mice by hepatic oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction reduction, and intestinal barrier improvement and gut microbiota modulation","volume":"96","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"uhae170","DOI":"10.1093\/hr\/uhae170","article-title":"Panax notoginseng: Panoramagram of phytochemical and pharmacological properties, biosynthesis, and regulation and production of ginsenosides","volume":"11","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hortic. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-021-10138-1","article-title":"Gut-liver axis modulation of Panax notoginseng saponins in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2025.120897","article-title":"Tongmaijiangzhi formula and its hypolipidemic compounds attenuate hyperlipidemia and hepatic steatosis via AMPK\/NF-\u03baB pathway","volume":"357","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"157506","article-title":"Panax notoginseng saponin mitigates glycolysis to regulate macrophage polarization and sphingolipid metabolism via hypoxia-inducible factor-1 to alleviate atherosclerosis","volume":"149","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phytomedicine Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, S., Liu, M., Han, Y., Li, S., Zhu, X., Li, D., Shi, Y., and Liu, B. (2024). Effects of Saponins on Lipid Metabolism: The Gut-Liver Axis Plays a Key Role. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16101514"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V\u00e1zquez, L., Fl\u00f3rez, A.B., Guadamuro, L., and Mayo, B. (2017). Effect of Soy Isoflavones on Growth of Representative Bacterial Species from the Human Gut. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9070727"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2025.157545","article-title":"Multidimensional immunomodulation by abelmoschi corolla polysaccharide: Gut barrier restoration, microbiota remodelling, and systemic metabolic regulation","volume":"149","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phytomedicine: Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2025.04.011","article-title":"Cohabitation facilitates microbiome shifts that promote isoflavone transformation to ameliorate liver injury","volume":"33","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v7.i10.1325","article-title":"Oxidative stress: New insights on the association of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and atherosclerosis","volume":"7","author":"Polimeni","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Infante-Men\u00e9ndez, J., Gonz\u00e1lez-L\u00f3pez, P., Huertas-L\u00e1rez, R., G\u00f3mez-Hern\u00e1ndez, A., and Escribano, \u00d3. (2023). Oxidative Stress Modulation by ncRNAs and Their Emerging Role as Therapeutic Targets in Atherosclerosis and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12020262"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3167","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2022.tb00210.x","article-title":"Oxidative Stress and Redox Signaling in the Pathophysiology of Liver Diseases","volume":"12","author":"Mooli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2016.11.010","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in metabolic disorders\u2014A step towards mitochondria based therapeutic strategies, Biochimica et biophysica acta","volume":"1863","author":"Bhatti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"3053","article-title":"Dietary soy has both beneficial and potentially adverse cardiovascular effects: A placebo-controlled study in men and postmenopausal women","volume":"86","author":"Teede","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1097\/GME.0000000000001622","article-title":"Effect of soy protein containing isoflavones on endothelial and vascular function in postmenopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"27","author":"Abshirini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Menopause"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2025.116537","article-title":"High-phytosterol rapeseed oil prevents atherosclerosis by reducing intestinal barrier dysfunction and cholesterol uptake in ApoE-\/- mice","volume":"214","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2019.01.005","article-title":"Impact of plant sterols enrichment dose on gut microbiota from lean and obese subjects using TIM-2 in vitro fermentation model","volume":"54","author":"Alegria","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2025.107681","article-title":"Phytosterols and phytostanols in context: From physiology and pathophysiology to food supplementation and clinical practice","volume":"214","author":"Ruscica","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2024.107413","article-title":"Palmatine protects against atherosclerosis by gut microbiota and phenylalanine metabolism","volume":"209","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.08.148","article-title":"Berberine treatment reduces atherosclerosis by mediating gut microbiota in apoE-\/- mice","volume":"107","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother. Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_118","first-page":"2326","article-title":"Preventive and therapeutic effects of berberine on liver diseases and its mechanism","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Li, D., Yu, Z., Li, Y., and Wu, M. (2021). Multi-Pharmacology of Berberine in Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Diseases: Potential Contribution of Gut Microbiota. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.709629"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbio.2025.106562","article-title":"Bellidifolin, a constituent from edible Mongolic Liver Tea (Swertia diluta), promotes lipid metabolism by regulating intestinal microbiota and bile acid metabolism in mice during high fat diet-induced obesity","volume":"68","author":"Aikebaier","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Biosci."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/2\/188\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T05:11:36Z","timestamp":1767849096000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/2\/188"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]},"references-count":120,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18020188"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18020188","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]]}}}