{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T20:53:47Z","timestamp":1789073627770,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770508800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Autoimmune diseases (AIDs) are characterized by chronic inflammation and tissue damage resulting from abnormal immune responses. While genetic and environmental factors play significant roles in disease development, essential micronutrient deficiencies (MNDs) represent a critical and often overlooked contributor. Methods: This review examines the interactions between micronutrients and immune cells, focusing on vitamin D, vitamin B12, folate (FA), and iron, and their roles in AIDs, such as rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune thyroid disorders, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and other connective tissue diseases. We explore the immunomodulatory effects of these micronutrients, their impact on immune tolerance, and the mechanisms by which MNDs contribute to disease progression. Results: MNDs are commonly observed in patients with AIDs and are associated with worsening immune dysregulation, increased inflammation, and disease severity. Vitamin D plays a pivotal role in modulating immune responses and attenuating inflammation, while iron and FA are essential for immune cell proliferation and function. Vitamin B12 supports methylation processes and genomic stability. Conclusions: MNDs significantly influence the pathogenesis and progression of AIDs. Routine micronutrient screening and targeted supplementation should be considered as part of clinical management, offering potential adjunctive benefits alongside conventional therapies. Further research is needed to define optimal dosing strategies and to identify patient subgroups most likely to benefit from nutrition-based interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18040561","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T12:42:42Z","timestamp":1770640962000},"page":"561","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Micronutrients in Autoimmune Diseases: Shining a Light on Vitamin D, Cobalamin, Folate, and Iron Metabolism"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1954-2825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Triggianese","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Nutrition and Geriatrics, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2889-366X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe A.","family":"Ramirez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20123 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Cedola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Nutrition and Geriatrics, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Nicola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunology and Allergy Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Mauriziano Hospital, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2269-0439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Costanzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Medical Science, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7249-7616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luisa","family":"Brussino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunology and Allergy Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, Mauriziano Hospital, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6109-3250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Chiereghin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Nutrition and Geriatrics, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5768-391X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Firinu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Medical Science, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Della-Morte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Nutrition and Geriatrics, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5640-6446","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Patella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, \u201cSanta Maria della Speranza\u201d Hospital, ASL Salerno, 84131 Salerno, Italy"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Naples \u201cFederico II\u201d, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2581-9250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cinzia","family":"Milito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, \u201cSapienza\u201d University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, M., Yip, L., Wang, F., Marty, S.-E., and Fathman, C.G. 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