{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T00:50:18Z","timestamp":1783558218256,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003453","name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024A1515010972"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024A1515010972"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003453","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Medical Research Fund","award":["B2503004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B2503004"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Medical Research Fund","award":["E250200314"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E250200314"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82373675"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82373675"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["JCYJ20240813143014019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20240813143014019"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009019","name":"Shenzhen University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["SZU2024YZZKY001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SZU2024YZZKY001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009019","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: To explore the association between the dietary inflammatory index (DII) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) risk and to evaluate potential interactions of obesity and dyslipidemia in the context of this association. Methods: This cohort study included 8055 adults. Dietary data from food frequency questionnaires were used to calculate DII, reflecting dietary inflammatory potential. T2DM was defined as fasting plasma glucose \u22657.0 mmol\/L, HbA1c \u22656.5%, a documented T2DM history, or glucose-lowering therapy. Multivariate Cox regression models assessed the DII-T2DM association, with multiplicative interaction analysis via product terms and additive interactions evaluated using relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI) and attributable proportion due to interaction (AP). Results: After a median 5.01-year follow-up, 1034 incident T2DM cases had occurred. The highest versus lowest DII quartile showed an unadjusted HR of 1.20 (95% CI: 1.01\u20131.42), which attenuated after adjusting for demographic and clinical confounders. In women, the highest DII quartile had a significantly adjusted HR of 1.36 (1.03\u20131.81), with a 16% increased risk per 1-SD DII increase (adjusted HR:1.16, 95% CI:1.04\u20131.29); no association was observed in men. Positive multiplicative and additive interactions emerged in total participants between high DII and central obesity (measured by waist circumference\/waist-to-hip ratio), accounting for 22% and 31% of excess T2DM risk, respectively. No interactions were found with dyslipidemia and other obesity metrics (BMI, waist-to-height ratio). Conclusions: This study suggests that a highly pro-inflammatory diet may be associated with an increased incident risk of T2DM among women. Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio and a high DII are found to act synergistically in elevating T2DM risk.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18050738","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T13:58:03Z","timestamp":1772114283000},"page":"738","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Dietary Inflammatory Index and Incident Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Interactions with Obesity and Dyslipidemia in a Prospective Cohort Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Jinliang","family":"Liang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xueru","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuying","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taifeng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaqin","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minqi","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liuding","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kexin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yihao","family":"Shu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaixin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinyuan","family":"Pang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongsheng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation (2025, February 11). IDF Diabetes Atlas 11th Edition. Available online: https:\/\/diabetesatlas.org\/resources\/idf-diabetes-atlas-2025\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S148911","article-title":"Inflammation and oxidative stress markers in diabetes and hypertension","volume":"11","author":"Pouvreau","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-017-0236-0","article-title":"Novel inflammatory markers for incident pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes: The Rotterdam Study","volume":"32","author":"Brahimaj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.292.12.1440","article-title":"Effect of a mediterranean-style diet on endothelial dysfunction and markers of vascular inflammation in the metabolic syndrome: A randomized trial","volume":"292","author":"Esposito","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.09.020","article-title":"Western Diet and the Immune System: An Inflammatory Connection","volume":"51","author":"Christ","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980013002115","article-title":"Designing and developing a literature-derived, population-based dietary inflammatory index","volume":"17","author":"Shivappa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2019.110569","article-title":"Validating the dietary inflammatory index using inflammatory biomarkers in a Japanese population: A cross-sectional study of the JPHC-FFQ validation study","volume":"69","author":"Kotemori","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1007\/s12603-016-0775-1","article-title":"Construct Validation of the Dietary Inflammatory Index among African Americans","volume":"21","author":"Wirth","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.15517","article-title":"Associations of a proinflammatory diet, habitual salt intake, and the onset of type 2 diabetes: A prospective cohort study from the UK Biobank","volume":"26","author":"Shen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11159","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11159","article-title":"Association between Dietary Inflammatory Index and Type 2 diabetes mellitus in Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region, China","volume":"9","author":"Fu","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9953115","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/9953115","article-title":"Dietary Inflammatory Index in relation to Type 2 Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"2022","author":"Motamedi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2016-1146","article-title":"Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Type 2 Diabetes Prevention: Evidence, Mechanisms, and Clinical Implications","volume":"38","author":"Manson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-05040-3","article-title":"Sex differences in metabolic regulation and diabetes susceptibility","volume":"63","author":"Tramunt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.295.11.1288","article-title":"Sex differences of endogenous sex hormones and risk of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"295","author":"Ding","year":"2006","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70178-3_5","article-title":"The Role of Sex and Sex Hormones in Regulating Obesity-Induced Inflammation","volume":"1043","author":"Varghese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2020.108031","article-title":"Dietary anti-inflammatory index, metabolic syndrome and transition in metabolic status; a gender-specific analysis of ATTICA prospective study","volume":"161","author":"Kouvari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2222","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-04972-0","article-title":"Dietary inflammatory index and type 2 diabetes risk in a prospective cohort of 70,991 women followed for 20 years: The mediating role of BMI","volume":"62","author":"Laouali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo, T., Wei, M., and Fu, J. (2024). Dietary inflammatory index and type 2 diabetes in US women: A cross-sectional analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2007\u20132018. Front. Nutr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2024.1455521"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2016.1203502","article-title":"Sex differences and hormonal effects on gut microbiota composition in mice","volume":"7","author":"Org","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13349","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13349","article-title":"The dietary inflammatory index, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk factors and diseases","volume":"23","author":"Hariharan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C375","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00379.2020","article-title":"Adipose tissue inflammation and metabolic dysfunction in obesity","volume":"320","author":"Kawai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2023.08.002","article-title":"Energy-Adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index and Diabetes Risk in Postmenopausal Hispanic Women","volume":"124","author":"Zuercher","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnim.2019.100095","article-title":"Adiposity does not modify the effect of the dietary inflammatory potential on type 2 diabetes incidence among a prospective cohort of men","volume":"16","author":"Guinter","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Intermed. Metab."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, N., Lin, Y., Ye, Z., Yang, C., Huang, Y., Duan, Q., and Xie, S. (2022). The relationship between dyslipidemia and inflammation among adults in east coast China: A cross-sectional study. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.937201"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-023-01914-z","article-title":"Dietary inflammation index is associated with dyslipidemia: Evidence from national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999\u20132019","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaa204","article-title":"Cohort Profile: The Rural Chinese Cohort Study","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Yang, Y. (2018). China Food Composition Tables, Standard Edition, 6th Revision, Peking University Medical Press."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Z., Zhao, A., Wang, Y., Meng, L., Szeto, I.M., Li, T., Gong, H., Tian, Z., Zhang, Y., and Wang, P. (2018). Association between Dietary Inflammatory Index, C-Reactive Protein and Metabolic Syndrome: A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10070831"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabet.2021.101246","article-title":"Elevated triglyceride-glucose index predicts risk of incident ischaemic stroke: The Rural Chinese cohort study","volume":"47","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e209807","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000209807","article-title":"Association Between Abnormal Sleep Duration and Stroke in the United States","volume":"103","author":"Hassani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB","article-title":"International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity","volume":"35","author":"Craig","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31821ece12","article-title":"2011 Compendium of Physical Activities: A second update of codes and MET values","volume":"43","author":"Ainsworth","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.14854","article-title":"The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans","volume":"320","author":"Piercy","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2","article-title":"Seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure","volume":"42","author":"Chobanian","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-9120(00)00162-4","article-title":"Estimation of LDL cholesterol based on the Friedewald formula and on apo B levels","volume":"33","author":"Bairaktari","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"National Health Commission of the People\u2019s Republic of China (2025, March 18). Criteria of Weight for Adults: WS\/T 428-2013, Available online: http:\/\/www.nhc.gov.cn\/ewebeditor\/uploadfile\/2013\/08\/20130808135715967.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2011). Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2004.05.025","article-title":"The superiority of waist-to-height ratio as an anthropometric index to evaluate clustering of coronary risk factors among non-obese men and women","volume":"40","author":"Hsieh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"390","article-title":"Guidelines on prevention and treatment of blood lipid abnormality in Chinese adults","volume":"35","author":"Ren","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chin. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3158","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.3158","article-title":"Standards of medical care for type 2 diabetes in China 2019","volume":"35","author":"Jia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyr218","article-title":"Recommendations for presenting analyses of effect modification and interaction","volume":"41","author":"Knol","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-011-9554-9","article-title":"Estimating measures of interaction on an additive scale for preventive exposures","volume":"26","author":"Knol","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2006.10.009","article-title":"Test for additive interaction in proportional hazards models","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2023.107336","article-title":"Effects of dietary inflammatory index, blood lead levels, and flavonoid intake on stroke risk in older Americans: A cross-sectional study","volume":"32","author":"Zhuo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1515\/em-2013-0005","article-title":"A tutorial on interaction","volume":"3","author":"VanderWeele","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13145","DOI":"10.1111\/eci.13145","article-title":"Understanding of interaction (subgroup) analysis in clinical trials","volume":"49","author":"Brankovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Namazi, N., Anjom-Shoae, J., Najafi, F., Ayati, M.H., Darbandi, M., and Pasdar, Y. (2023). Pro-inflammatory diet, cardio-metabolic risk factors and risk of type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional analysis using data from RaNCD cohort study. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-022-03023-8"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hodge, A.M., Karim, M.N., H\u00e9bert, J.R., Shivappa, N., and de Courten, B. (2021). Association between Diet Quality Indices and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes in the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13114162"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2602","DOI":"10.2337\/dc22-0217","article-title":"Differences in the Association of Select Dietary Measures with Risk of Incident Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"45","author":"Tison","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00639","DOI":"10.34172\/jrhs.2025.174","article-title":"Comparison of Body Mass Index, Energy and Macronutrient Intake, and Dietary Inflammatory Index Between Type 2 Diabetic and Healthy Individuals","volume":"25","author":"Cheloi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Res. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0686","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000010686","article-title":"Flavonoids intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies","volume":"97","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1089","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(24)00250-0","article-title":"Diabetes in China part 1: Epidemiology and risk factors","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980019003070","article-title":"Dietary inflammatory index potentially increases blood pressure and markers of glucose homeostasis among adults: Findings from an updated systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Farhangi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2015-1137","article-title":"Sex and Gender Differences in Risk, Pathophysiology and Complications of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"37","author":"Harreiter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2008.04.001","article-title":"Estrogen anti-inflammatory activity in brain: A therapeutic opportunity for menopause and neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"29","author":"Vegeto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-025-02473-1","article-title":"Sex differences in associations of metabolic inflammation and insulin resistance with incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: A retrospective cohort of adults with annual health examinations","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462447","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2025.2462447","article-title":"Waist-to-hip ratio better reflect beta-cell function and predicts diabetes risk in adult with overweight or obesity","volume":"57","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shu, Y., Wu, X., Wang, J., Ma, X., Li, H., and Xiang, Y. (2022). Associations of Dietary Inflammatory Index with Prediabetes and Insulin Resistance. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.820932"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"139239","article-title":"Adipose tissue in obesity-related inflammation and insulin resistance: Cells, cytokines, and chemokines","volume":"2013","author":"Makki","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISRN Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21363","article-title":"Inflammation, metaflammation and immunometabolic disorders","volume":"542","author":"Hotamisligil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2490","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.52.10.2490","article-title":"Insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion, and abdominal fat: The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS) Family Study","volume":"52","author":"Wagenknecht","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-031210-101322","article-title":"Inflammatory mechanisms in obesity","volume":"29","author":"Gregor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/58.4.463","article-title":"Sex differences in the relation of visceral adipose tissue accumulation to total body fatness","volume":"58","author":"Lemieux","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2012-1055","article-title":"The role of estrogens in control of energy balance and glucose homeostasis","volume":"34","author":"Clegg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2014.11.029","article-title":"The sexual dimorphism of obesity","volume":"402","author":"Palmer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phillips, C.M., Shivappa, N., H\u00e9bert, J.R., and Perry, I.J. (2018). Dietary Inflammatory Index and Biomarkers of Lipoprotein Metabolism, Inflammation and Glucose Homeostasis in Adults. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10081033"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahimlou, M., Ahmadi, A.R., Cheraghian, B., Baghdadi, G., Ghalishourani, S.S., Nozarian, S., Hashemi, S.J., Rahimi, Z., Jahromi, N.B., and Hosseini, S.A. (2024). The association between dietary inflammatory index with some cardio-metabolic risk indices among the patients with type 2 diabetes from Hoveyzeh cohort study: A cross-sectional study. BMC Endocr. Disord., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12902-024-01624-2"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-024-01525-6","article-title":"The role of dietary inflammatory index in metabolic diseases: The associations, mechanisms, and treatments","volume":"79","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.112.300769","article-title":"Novel role of enteral monosaccharides in intestinal lipoprotein production in healthy humans","volume":"33","author":"Xiao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-024-02425-1","article-title":"Lipids dysregulation in diseases: Core concepts, targets and treatment strategies","volume":"24","author":"Dakal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451400395X","article-title":"Associations between dietary inflammatory index and inflammatory markers in the Asklepios Study","volume":"113","author":"Shivappa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980013002565","article-title":"A population-based dietary inflammatory index predicts levels of C-reactive protein in the Seasonal Variation of Blood Cholesterol Study (SEASONS)","volume":"17","author":"Shivappa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"c2289","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.c2289","article-title":"Random measurement error and regression dilution bias","volume":"340","author":"Hutcheon","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMJ"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/5\/738\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T05:14:08Z","timestamp":1772169248000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/5\/738"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18050738"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18050738","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]}}}