{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T06:22:32Z","timestamp":1792131752681,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776816000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Gerencia Regional of the Junta of Castilla and Le\u00f3n","award":["GRS 1193\/B\/15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GRS 1193\/B\/15"]}]},{"name":"Gerencia Regional of the Junta of Castilla and Le\u00f3n","award":["GRS2303\/B\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GRS2303\/B\/21"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) of the Ministry of Science and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RD21\/0016\/0010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RD21\/0016\/0010"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PI21\/00454"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI21\/00454"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PI21\/00454"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI21\/00454"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014180","name":"Junta de Castilla y Le\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["INT\/M\/02\/17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INT\/M\/02\/17"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014180","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014180","name":"Junta de Castilla y Le\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["INT\/M\/04\/15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INT\/M\/04\/15"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014180","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["INT\/M\/02\/17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INT\/M\/02\/17"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02s8dab97","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["INT\/M\/04\/15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INT\/M\/04\/15"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02s8dab97","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100032379","name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica de Salamanca","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["IBI21\/00001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBI21\/00001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100032379","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["IBI21\/00001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBI21\/00001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03em6xj44","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["INT22\/00007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INT22\/00007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["INT22\/00007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INT22\/00007"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00ca2c886","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Arterial stiffness (AS) is a key marker of vascular aging and an independent predictor of cardiovascular risk. Although diet has been proposed as an important modifiable factor influencing vascular health, the independent associations between specific macronutrients and minerals and the progression of arterial stiffness remain insufficiently characterized. Objective: The aim of this longitudinal study was to evaluate the independent associations of baseline dietary macronutrient and mineral intake with the 5-year progression of arterial stiffness (assessed via carotid\u2013femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV) and cardio-ankle vascular index (CAVI) in adults without prior cardiovascular disease. Methods: This longitudinal study included 466 participants from the EVA study who were evaluated at baseline and after a five-year follow-up (mean age 55.96 \u00b1 14.15 years; 51.1% women). Arterial stiffness was assessed using cfPWV and CAVI. Dietary intake of macronutrients and minerals was estimated using the EVIDENT smartphone application. Multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the association between nutrient intake and arterial stiffness progression. Model 1 was adjusted for age and sex, and Model 2 was additionally adjusted for lifestyle variables and cardiovascular risk factors. Dietary intake was exclusively documented at baseline using a 3-day dietary record, while arterial stiffness parameters (cfPWV and CAVI) were assessed both at baseline and at the five-year follow-up. Results: Higher dietary fiber intake was independently associated with a lower increment in cfPWV after full adjustment (\u03b2 = \u22120.025; 95% CI (confidence interval): \u22120.046 to \u22120.005). Alcohol intake showed a positive association with CAVI increment in the fully adjusted model (\u03b2 = 0.020; 95% CI: 0.006 to 0.034). Iron intake was also independently associated with increased CAVI (\u03b2 = 0.022; 95% CI: 0.004 to 0.041). Carbohydrate intake showed a small positive association with CAVI, whereas no consistent independent associations were observed for other macronutrients or minerals. Conclusions: In this adult population without previous cardiovascular disease, higher dietary fiber intake was associated with lower progression of central arterial stiffness, whereas alcohol and iron intake showed positive associations with peripheral arterial stiffness. Overall, most nutrients were not independently related to arterial stiffness after comprehensive adjustment. These findings suggest that selected dietary components may contribute modestly to vascular aging.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18091314","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T10:38:14Z","timestamp":1776854294000},"page":"1314","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Dietary Fiber Is Inversely Associated with Central Arterial Stiffness Progression, While Alcohol and Iron Intake Are Positively Associated with CAVI: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2024-4569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Alonso-Diaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Paseo de San Vicente, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5550-0913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"G\u00f3mez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Home Hospitalization Service, Marqu\u00e9s of Valdecilla University Hospital, 39008 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8176-6937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Arjol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Paseo de San Vicente, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4109-5897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Gonzalez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Paseo de San Vicente, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Research Network on Chronicity, Primary Care and Health Promotion (RICAPPS), 37005 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3667-7155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emiliano","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Paseo de San Vicente, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Research Network on Chronicity, Primary Care and Health Promotion (RICAPPS), 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Faculty of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Salamanca, Avenida de los Donantes de Sangre, s\/n, 37008 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Salamanca Primary Care Management, Castilla and Le\u00f3n Health Service\u2013SACYL, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6555-8302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Garc\u00eda-Ortiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Paseo de San Vicente, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Research Network on Chronicity, Primary Care and Health Promotion (RICAPPS), 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Faculty of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Salamanca, Avenida de los Donantes de Sangre, s\/n, 37008 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Salamanca, Av. Campo Charro, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Salamanca, Av. Campo Charro, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8663-9339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leticia","family":"G\u00f3mez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Emergency Service, University Hospital of La Paz. P. of Castellana, 261, 28046 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0133-6123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel A.","family":"G\u00f3mez-Marcos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Care Research Unit of Salamanca (APISAL), Avd. Portugal, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Paseo de San Vicente, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Research Network on Chronicity, Primary Care and Health Promotion (RICAPPS), 37005 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Faculty of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Salamanca, Avenida de los Donantes de Sangre, s\/n, 37008 Salamanca, Spain"},{"name":"Salamanca Primary Care Management, Castilla and Le\u00f3n Health Service\u2013SACYL, 37005 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"EVA Investigators Group","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.11.010","article-title":"Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors, 1990\u20132019: Update From the GBD 2019 Study","volume":"76","author":"Roth","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.2147\/VHRM.S1094","article-title":"Early Vascular Aging (EVA): Consequences and Prevention","volume":"4","author":"Nilsson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1177\/0003319717742544","article-title":"Carotid\u2013Femoral Pulse Wave Velocity in the Prediction of Cardiovascular Events and Mortality: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"69","author":"Zhong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Angiology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sequ\u00ed-Dom\u00ednguez, I., Cavero-Redondo, I., \u00c1lvarez-Bueno, C., Pozuelo-Carrascosa, D.P., Nu\u00f1ez de Arenas-Arroyo, S., and Mart\u00ednez-Vizca\u00edno, V. (2020). Accuracy of Pulse Wave Velocity Predicting Cardiovascular and All-Cause Mortality. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9072080"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.119.313132","article-title":"How to Measure Arterial Stiffness in Humans","volume":"40","author":"Segers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.120.313130","article-title":"Uses of Arterial Stiffness in Clinical Practice","volume":"40","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1161\/HYP.0000000000000033","article-title":"Recommendations for Improving and Standardizing Vascular Research on Arterial Stiffness","volume":"66","author":"Townsend","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.2147\/IBPC.S34423","article-title":"Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index (CAVI) as an Indicator of Arterial Stiffness","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Integr. Blood Press. Control"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.7716","article-title":"Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index (CAVI) as a Novel Indicator of Arterial Stiffness: Theory, Evidence and Perspectives","volume":"18","author":"Shirai","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e020103","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.120.020103","article-title":"Predictive Value of the Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index for Cardiovascular Events in Patients at Cardiovascular Risk","volume":"10","author":"Miyoshi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.002725","article-title":"The Effects of Dietary and Nutrient Interventions on Arterial Stiffness: A Systematic Review","volume":"93","author":"Pase","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ravera, A., Carubelli, V., Sciatti, E., Bonadei, I., Gorga, E., Cani, D., Vizzardi, E., Metra, M., and Lombardi, C. (2016). Nutrition and Cardiovascular Disease: Finding the Perfect Recipe for Cardiovascular Health. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8060363"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanek, A., Grygiel-G\u00f3rniak, B., Bro\u017cyna-Tkaczyk, K., My\u015bli\u0144ski, W., Cholewka, A., and Zolghadri, S. (2023). The Influence of Dietary Interventions on Arterial Stiffness in Overweight and Obese Subjects. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15061440"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-023-01947-9","article-title":"Early Vascular Aging as an Index of Cardiovascular Risk in Healthy Adults: Confirmatory Factor Analysis from the EVasCu Study","volume":"22","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2012.09.038","article-title":"Sodium and Potassium Intake Present a J-Shaped Relationship with Arterial Stiffness and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness","volume":"225","author":"Runkle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f3mezS\u00e1nchez, M., G\u00f3mez S\u00e1nchez, L., Patino-Alonso, M.C., Alonso-Dom\u00ednguez, R., S\u00e1nchez-Aguadero, N., Lugones-S\u00e1nchez, C., Rodr\u00edguez S\u00e1nchez, E., Garc\u00eda Ortiz, L., and G\u00f3mez-Marcos, M.A. (2020). Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Spanish Population and Its Relationship with Early Vascular Aging According to Sex and Age: EVA Study. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041025"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000002373","article-title":"Vascular Aging and Its Relationship with Lifestyles and Other Risk Factors in the General Spanish Population: Early Vascular Ageing Study","volume":"38","author":"Cunha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2020.111120","article-title":"Dietary Fat and Alcohol in the Prediction of Indices of Vascular Health among Young Adults","volume":"84","author":"Tisdel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, H.-T., Chan, Y.-H., Yiu, K.H., Li, S.-W., Tam, S., Lau, C.-P., and Tse, H.-F. (2014). Worsened Arterial Stiffness in High-Risk Cardiovascular Patients with High Habitual Carbohydrate Intake: A Cross-Sectional Vascular Function Study. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2261-14-24"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.111.150672","article-title":"Central Adiposity and Protein Intake Are Associated with Arterial Stiffness in Overweight Children","volume":"142","author":"Arnberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.024703","article-title":"Lower Lifetime Dietary Fiber Intake Is Associated with Carotid Artery Stiffness: The Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study","volume":"96","author":"Stehouwer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2017.06.028","article-title":"Whole Grain Consumption Is Negatively Correlated with Obesity-Associated Aortic Stiffness: A Hypothesis","volume":"45","author":"Campbell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2009.00189.x","article-title":"Health Benefits of Dietary Fiber","volume":"67","author":"Anderson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.05.012","article-title":"The Impact of Dietary Fiber on Gut Microbiota in Host Health and Disease","volume":"23","author":"Makki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqx082","article-title":"Dietary Fiber and Health Outcomes: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses","volume":"107","author":"Veronese","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1177\/1358863X16629728","article-title":"Serum Ferritin Levels Are Associated with Arterial Stiffness in Healthy Korean Adults","volume":"21","author":"Ha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3300","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.96.10.3300","article-title":"Body Iron Stores and the Risk of Carotid Atherosclerosis: Prospective Results from the Bruneck Study","volume":"96","author":"Kiechl","year":"1997","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5124553","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/5124553","article-title":"Role of Iron-Related Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Cardiovascular Diseases","volume":"2022","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.122.321667","article-title":"Iron Metabolism in Cardiovascular Disease: Physiology, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Targets","volume":"132","author":"Sawicki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.86.3.803","article-title":"High Stored Iron Levels Are Associated with Excess Risk of Myocardial Infarction in Eastern Finnish Men","volume":"86","author":"Salonen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matek Sari\u0107, M., Sori\u0107, T., Juko Kasap, \u017d., Lisica \u0160iki\u0107, N., Mavar, M., Andru\u0161kien\u0117, J., and Sari\u0107, A. (2025). Magnesium: Health Effects, Deficiency Burden, and Future Public Health Directions. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17223626"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, F.H. (2024). The Role of Dietary Magnesium in Cardiovascular Disease. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16234223"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"d671","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d671","article-title":"Association of Alcohol Consumption with Selected Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"342","author":"Ronksley","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e008202","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.117.008202","article-title":"Sex-Specific Associations Between Alcohol Consumption and Incidence of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies","volume":"7","author":"Roerecke","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.35946\/arcr.v38.2.06","article-title":"Alcohol\u2019s Effects on the Cardiovascular System","volume":"38","author":"Piano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alcohol Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del Giorno, R., Maddalena, A., Bassetti, S., and Gabutti, L. (2022). Association between Alcohol Intake and Arterial Stiffness in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14061207"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)30134-X","article-title":"Risk Thresholds for Alcohol Consumption: Combined Analysis of Individual-Participant Data for 599 912 Current Drinkers in 83 Prospective Studies","volume":"391","author":"Wood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonso-Diaz, J., G\u00f3mez-S\u00e1nchez, M., S\u00e1nchez-Moreno, A., Lugones-S\u00e1nchez, C., Rodriguez-Sanchez, E., Garcia-Ortiz, L., G\u00f3mez-S\u00e1nchez, L., G\u00f3mez-Marcos, M.A., and EVA Investigators Group (2026). Association Between Increased Central and Peripheral Arterial 2 Stiffness and Vitamin Intake in Healthy Adults: EVA Follow-Up 3 Study. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18050745"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e011031","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-011031","article-title":"Association between Different Risk Factors and Vascular Accelerated Ageing (EVA Study): Study Protocol for a Cross-Sectional, Descriptive Observational Study","volume":"6","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2014.07.014","article-title":"Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration","volume":"12","author":"Vandenbroucke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Medical Association (2025). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. JAMA, 333, 71.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.21972"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2010). The Reference Values for Arterial Stiffness\u2019 Collaboration. Determinants of Pulse Wave Velocity in Healthy People and in the Presence of Cardiovascular Risk Factors: \u2018Establishing Normal and Reference Values\u2019. Eur. Heart J., 31, 2338\u20132350.","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehq165"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.13.101","article-title":"A Novel Blood Pressure-Independent Arterial Wall Stiffness Parameter; Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index (CAVI)","volume":"13","author":"Shirai","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11463","DOI":"10.2196\/11463","article-title":"EVIDENT Smartphone App, a New Method for the Dietary Record: Comparison With a Food Frequency Questionnaire","volume":"7","author":"Arietaleanizbeaskoa","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR Mhealth Uhealth"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.110.135566","article-title":"A Short Screener Is Valid for Assessing Mediterranean Diet Adherence among Older Spanish Men and Women","volume":"141","author":"Estruch","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181c5ec18","article-title":"Measuring Total and Domain-Specific Sitting","volume":"42","author":"Marshall","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, A., Ng, S., Koh, D., and M\u00fcller-Riemenschneider, F. (2018). Domain-Specific Adult Sedentary Behaviour Questionnaire (ASBQ) and the GPAQ Single-Item Question: A Reliability and Validity Study in an Asian Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15040739"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5868-8-115","article-title":"Validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF): A Systematic Review","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meh, K., Jurak, G., Sori\u0107, M., Rocha, P., and Sember, V. (2021). Validity and Reliability of IPAQ-SF and GPAQ for Assessing Sedentary Behaviour in Adults in the European Union: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18094602"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3021","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehy339","article-title":"2018 ESC\/ESH Guidelines for the Management of Arterial Hypertension","volume":"39","author":"Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"f6879","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.f6879","article-title":"Dietary Fibre Intake and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"347","author":"Threapleton","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acvd.2015.09.005","article-title":"Dietary Fibre Intake and Mortality from Cardiovascular Disease and All Cancers: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies","volume":"109","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2018.08.007","article-title":"Dietary Fiber Intake: Its Relation With Glycation End Products and Arterial Stiffness in End-Stage Renal Disease Patients","volume":"29","author":"Demirci","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31809-9","article-title":"Carbohydrate Quality and Human Health: A Series of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses","volume":"393","author":"Reynolds","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.079533","article-title":"Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Results from 3 Large US Cohorts and an Updated Meta-Analysis","volume":"100","author":"Bhupathiraju","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e419","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(18)30135-X","article-title":"Dietary Carbohydrate Intake and Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study and Meta-Analysis","volume":"3","author":"Seidelmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1111\/jch.12008","article-title":"Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Hypertension in Men and Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Briasoulis","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e005288","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.116.005288","article-title":"Twenty-Five-Year Alcohol Consumption Trajectories and Their Association With Arterial Aging: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"6","author":"Britton","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vinchi, F., Muckenthaler, M.U., Da Silva, M.C., Balla, G., Balla, J., and Jeney, V. (2014). Atherogenesis and Iron: From Epidemiology to Cellular Level. Front. Pharmacol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2014.00094"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000001604","article-title":"Effect of Dietary Sodium Restriction on Arterial Stiffness","volume":"36","author":"Galletti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e021789","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.121.021789","article-title":"Effects of a Low-Salt and High-Potassium Diet on Arterial Stiffness and Left Ventricular Function in Indigenous Papuans","volume":"10","author":"Ishida","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2026, April 06). Dietary Reference Values for the EU Finder. Available online: https:\/\/www.efsa.europa.eu\/en\/topics\/topic\/dietary-reference-values."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/9\/1314\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T04:43:46Z","timestamp":1777005826000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/9\/1314"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18091314"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18091314","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]]}}}