{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:15:02Z","timestamp":1785420902317,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["22K05849"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22K05849"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["22K05849"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22K05849"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00hhkn466","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"JST SPRING","award":["JPMJSP2148"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJSP2148"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: In Japan, single mothers face a high risk of poverty and poorer dietary quality than partnered mothers; however, the pathways underlying these disparities remain unclear. This study examined whether economic status mediates the association between family structure and maternal dietary behaviors and whether intergenerational co-residence modifies these pathways. Methods: Using nationally representative repeated cross-sectional survey data from 2018 to 2022 (N = 1319 mothers), we conducted path analysis of dietary awareness and behaviors. Family structure was classified as partnered mothers (reference), single mothers not co-residing with grandparents, and single mothers co-residing with grandparents. Economic status and frequency of shared family dinners were modeled as mediators. Results: Compared with partnered mothers, both groups of single mothers showed poorer economic conditions, with greater disadvantage among those not co-residing with grandparents. Economic conditions accounted for substantial disparities in multiple dietary outcomes. Shared family dinners were positively associated with several dietary behaviors; however, dinner frequency did not differ significantly between partnered and single mothers or between single mothers with and without grandparental co-residence. Single mothers not co-residing with grandparents showed residual direct disadvantages in nutritionally balanced meals, breakfast frequency, and healthy dietary awareness, whereas those co-residing with grandparents showed weaker disadvantages. Conclusions: Dietary vulnerability among single mothers in Japan was strongly associated with economic disadvantage, but not poverty alone. Intergenerational co-residence was associated with weaker disadvantage rather than eliminating it. Policies should combine income support with childcare assistance and low-burden Shokuiku or community-based meal support to strengthen resource capacity and daily healthy eating routines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18101509","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T12:05:22Z","timestamp":1778501122000},"page":"1509","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Does Poverty Explain All? A Path Analysis of Single Mothers\u2019 Dietary Behaviors in Japan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4663-0994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1129-8522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akira","family":"Ishida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, M., Wu, L., and Ishida, A. (2023). Effect of mid-adolescent dietary practices on eating behaviors and attitudes in adulthood. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15010225"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.101.S2.539","article-title":"Development of eating behaviors among children and adolescents","volume":"101","author":"Birch","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-720X.2007.00111.x","article-title":"Parental influence on eating behavior","volume":"35","author":"Savage","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Law. Med. Ethics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scaglioni, S., De Cosmi, V., Ciappolino, V., Parazzini, F., Brambilla, P., and Agostoni, C. (2018). Factors influencing children\u2019s eating behaviours. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10060706"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.3390\/women2030025","article-title":"Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on dietary practices for mothers in Japan","volume":"2","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Women"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Murakami, K., and Livingstone, M.B.E. (2021). Associations between changes in eating habits and food intake during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. Nutrients, 13."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"2796","article-title":"Food insecurity and dietary intake among Japanese adults during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"24","author":"Yoshida","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"273","article-title":"Food expenditure and household economic conditions in Japan","volume":"32","author":"Tanaka","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2013.28.6","article-title":"Educational differences in divorce in Japan","volume":"28","author":"Raymo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Demogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"National Institute of Population and Social Security Research (2018). Household Projections for Japan (2018\u20132040)."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (2017). National Survey of Single-Parent Households 2016 (Summary in English)."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"2756","article-title":"The influence of household composition on child diet quality","volume":"20","author":"Faught","year":"2017","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"2840","article-title":"Household food insecurity and maternal diet quality","volume":"17","author":"McCurdy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"146","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and diet quality in adults","volume":"85","author":"Hanson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.5.1107","article-title":"Does social class predict diet quality?","volume":"87","author":"Darmon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"759","article-title":"Socioeconomic inequalities in food intake","volume":"68","author":"Giskes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1520","article-title":"Socioeconomic determinants of dietary patterns","volume":"11","author":"Paccaud","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/79.1.6","article-title":"Poverty and obesity","volume":"79","author":"Drewnowski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"894","article-title":"Social relationships and healthful dietary behaviour","volume":"99","author":"Conklin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"887","article-title":"Relationship between stress and eating behaviour","volume":"27","author":"Torres","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"706","article-title":"Reclaiming the family table","volume":"108","author":"Fiese","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1565","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-1440","article-title":"Is frequency of shared family meals related to nutritional health?","volume":"127","author":"Hammons","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.2307\/2228949","article-title":"A theory of the allocation of time","volume":"75","author":"Becker","year":"1965","journal-title":"Econ. J."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Becker, G.S. (1981). A Treatise on the Family, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"219","article-title":"The gender gap in poverty in modern nations","volume":"31","author":"Christopher","year":"2002","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2003.00356.x","article-title":"Costs and rewards of children","volume":"65","author":"Nomaguchi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Marriage Fam."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-6781.1998.tb00060.x","article-title":"Sociological determinants of life satisfaction in Japan: The roles of gender, family, and work","volume":"7","author":"Kamo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Jpn. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2018.08.013","article-title":"Psychosocial factors associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress among single mothers with young children: A population-based study","volume":"242","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.02.065","article-title":"Psychological distress and living conditions among Japanese single-mothers with preschool-age children: An analysis of 2016 Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions","volume":"286","author":"Kato","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"66","article-title":"Job strain and unhealthy diet: The EPIC-Norfolk study","volume":"111","author":"Monsivais","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2007.04.011","article-title":"Stress, eating and the reward system","volume":"91","author":"Adam","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Tsuya, N.O., and Bumpass, L.L. (2004). Marriage, Work, and Family Life in Comparative Perspective, University of Hawaii Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1111\/ssqu.12365","article-title":"Filial norms, co-residence, and intergenerational exchange in Japan","volume":"98","author":"Taniguchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Q."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishinakagawa, M., Sakurai, R., Nemoto, Y., Matsunaga, H., Takebayashi, T., and Fujiwara, Y. (2023). Influence of education and subjective financial status on dietary habits among young, middle-aged, and older adults in Japan: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16131-7"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1602700","article-title":"How do socio-economic status, perceived economic barriers and nutritional benefits affect quality of dietary intake among US adults?","volume":"62","author":"Beydoun","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asomugha, I.C., Uwaegbute, A.C., and Obeagu, E.I. (2019). Household food insecurity and nutritional status among Japanese mothers and children. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081744"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"2291","article-title":"Breakfast skipping in Japanese adults: Association with dietary quality and lifestyle factors","volume":"21","author":"Murakami","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Statistics Bureau of Japan (2026, April 21). Consumer Price Index (2020 Base Year), Available online: https:\/\/www.stat.go.jp\/english\/data\/cpi\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Children and Families Agency (2026, April 21). Survey on the Implementation Status of Self-Support Measures for Mothers in Father-Absent Households and Fathers in Mother-Absent Households, FY2024, (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Children and Families Agency (2026, April 21). The Outline of the Child Allowance, Available online: https:\/\/www.cfa.go.jp\/en\/index-en."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2026, April 21). Policies for the promotion of Shokuiku (White Paper on Shokuiku), FY2024 Edition [Summary], Available online: https:\/\/www.maff.go.jp\/e\/data\/publish\/attach\/pdf\/index-228.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2012.01028.x","article-title":"Intergenerational transfers to adult children in Europe: Do social policies matter?","volume":"75","author":"Brandt","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Marriage Fam."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/10\/1509\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T04:18:13Z","timestamp":1779250693000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/10\/1509"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18101509"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18101509","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]}}}