{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:45:02Z","timestamp":1785422702397,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"General Administration of Sport of China","award":["23KJCX046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23KJCX046"]}]},{"award":["23KJCX046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23KJCX046"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021jpad90","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["2025KYPT05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025KYPT05"]}]},{"name":"PepsiCo Inc","award":["BSU20240519"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BSU20240519"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Recreational exercise has become increasingly common among Chinese adults. However, population-specific data on sweat rate and electrolyte composition during typical daily physical activities remain limited. Therefore, this study aimed to comprehensively characterize the hydration status, sweat rate, and sweat electrolyte composition among Chinese adults engaging in common daily exercises under controlled environmental conditions, and to examine sex-related differences. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 285 healthy adults (143 men, 142 women) were assigned to one of three separate activity groups: brisk walking (n = 100), running (n = 90), or cycling (n = 95). Activity protocols were standardized using fixed activity-specific speeds corresponding to 5.2, 8.2, and 4.4 METs for brisk walking, running, and cycling, respectively, based on the Chinese Compilation of Physical Activities. Each participant completed one 60-min exercise session under controlled environmental conditions. Sweat samples were collected from the chest using sweat patches and analyzed for Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe, Zn2+, and Cu2+ using ICP-MS\/OES. Whole-body sweat sodium and potassium concentrations were estimated using validated regression equations. Body mass loss (BML) and sweat rate were calculated from pre- and post-exercise nude body mass. Results: Across all participants and activity types, the overall mean sweat rate was 0.71 \u00b1 0.28 L\/h, and the mean percentage of body mass loss (BML%) was 0.78 \u00b1 0.45%. Among the three physical activities, running elicited higher sweat rates (0.92 \u00b1 0.29 L\/h) and BML% (1.16 \u00b1 0.36%) than brisk walking or cycling (p &lt; 0.05). The estimated whole-body Na+ and K+ concentrations across all participants were 34.10 \u00b1 10.31 mmol\/L and 3.35 (3.02\u20133.93) mmol\/L, respectively, with 59.3% of participants classified as having moderate Na+ levels (30\u201360 mmol\/L). Men exhibited higher sweat rates and Na+ concentrations, whereas women showed higher K+, Zn2+, and Cu2+ levels (p &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: Chinese adults engaging in common daily physical activities under temperate environmental conditions demonstrated low-to-moderate sweat rates and sodium concentrations. These findings provide baseline reference data for population-specific hydration education and may inform future validation and application of wearable sweat-sensing technologies in public health monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18101531","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T16:04:36Z","timestamp":1778601876000},"page":"1531","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sweat Electrolyte Profiles During Daily Physical Activities Among Chinese Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1809-4186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiheng","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"PepsiCo Asia R&D Center, Shanghai 201114, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhihui","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhirui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengnan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"Beijing Sports Nutrition Engineering Research Center, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PepsiCo Asia R&D Center, Shanghai 201114, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mo","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PepsiCo Asia R&D Center, Shanghai 201114, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meiyuan","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PepsiCo Asia R&D Center, Shanghai 201114, China"},{"name":"School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junqiang","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Biochemistry, Exercise Science School, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"},{"name":"Beijing Sports Nutrition Engineering Research Center, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31802fa199","article-title":"American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exertional heat illness during training and competition","volume":"39","author":"Armstrong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1992.73.4.1340","article-title":"Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise","volume":"73","author":"Montain","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"377","article-title":"American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement","volume":"39","author":"Sawka","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-020-04323-7","article-title":"Physiological mechanisms determining eccrine sweat composition","volume":"120","author":"Baker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00367.2010","article-title":"Mechanisms of aerobic performance impairment with heat stress and dehydration","volume":"109","author":"Cheuvront","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2015.1055291","article-title":"Normative data for regional sweat sodium concentration and whole-body sweating rate in athletes","volume":"34","author":"Baker","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00197.2009","article-title":"Comparison of regional patch collection vs. whole body washdown for measuring sweat sodium and potassium loss during exercise","volume":"107","author":"Baker","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-003-0968-2","article-title":"Sweat lactate response between males with high and low aerobic fitness","volume":"91","author":"Green","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-445X.2000.02058.x","article-title":"Variations in regional sweat composition in normal human males","volume":"85","author":"Patterson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"F868","article-title":"Volume repletion after exercise-induced volume depletion in humans: Replacement of water and sodium losses","volume":"274","author":"Shirreffs","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Surapongchai, J., Saengsirisuwan, V., Rollo, I., Randell, R.K., Nithitsuttibuta, K., Sainiyom, P., Leow, C.H.W., and Lee, J.K.W. (2021). Hydration Status, Fluid Intake, Sweat Rate, and Sweat Sodium Concentration in Recreational Tropical Native Runners. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041374"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1540","article-title":"Sweat composition in exercise and in heat","volume":"53","author":"Verde","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol. Respir. Environ. Exerc. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.059121","article-title":"Understanding the patterns and trends of sodium intake, potassium intake, and sodium to potassium ratio and their effect on hypertension in China","volume":"99","author":"Du","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.15816","article-title":"Salt and sodium intake in China","volume":"315","author":"Hipgrave","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F585","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.2000.278.4.F585","article-title":"High dietary sodium chloride consumption may not induce body fluid retention in humans","volume":"278","author":"Heer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1093\/ajh\/hpaa049","article-title":"Sodium handling and interaction in numerous organs","volume":"33","author":"Minegishi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.afnr.2015.07.001","article-title":"Body composition in Asians and Caucasians: Comparative analyses and influences on cardiometabolic outcomes","volume":"75","author":"Haldar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smhs.2022.06.004","article-title":"Chinese compilation of physical activities in healthy adults aged 18\u201364: Categories and metabolic intensities","volume":"4","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Med. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00867.2017","article-title":"Body map of regional vs. whole body sweating rate and sweat electrolyte concentrations in men and women during moderate exercise-heat stress","volume":"124","author":"Baker","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12637","article-title":"Sweat sodium loss influences serum sodium concentration in a marathon","volume":"27","author":"Lara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2012.10720011","article-title":"Cognitive Performance and Dehydration","volume":"31","author":"Adan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2014.tb00543.x","article-title":"Dehydration: Physiology, assessment, and performance effects","volume":"4","author":"Cheuvront","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H321","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.2000.278.2.H321","article-title":"Stroke volume during exercise: Interaction of environment and hydration","volume":"278","author":"Coyle","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-017-0079-y","article-title":"The Effect of Fluid Intake Following Dehydration on Subsequent Athletic and Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"3","author":"McCartney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Med.-Open"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2360","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001682","article-title":"Dehydration Impairs Cognitive Performance: A Meta-analysis","volume":"50","author":"Wittbrodt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2019.1633159","article-title":"Normative data for sweating rate, sweat sodium concentration, and sweat sodium loss in athletes: An update and analysis by sport","volume":"37","author":"Barnes","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belval, L.N., Hosokawa, Y., Casa, D.J., Adams, W.M., Armstrong, L.E., Baker, L.B., Burke, L., Cheuvront, S., Chiampas, G., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Alonso, J. (2019). Practical Hydration Solutions for Sports. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071550"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.18.5.457","article-title":"Development of Individual Hydration Strategies for Athletes","volume":"18","author":"Maughan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport. Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S106","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-971970","article-title":"Effects of age and gender on sweating pattern during exercise","volume":"19","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00266.2021","article-title":"Sex differences in the physiological responses to exercise-induced dehydration: Consequences and mechanisms","volume":"131","author":"Wickham","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2020-0040","article-title":"Mild dehydration impaired intermittent sprint performance and thermoregulation in females","volume":"45","author":"Driscoll","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00391.2022","article-title":"Explaining variation in sweat sodium concentration: Effect of individual characteristics and exercise, environmental, and dietary factors","volume":"133","author":"Baker","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2013-0480","article-title":"Variability of measurements of sweat sodium using the regional absorbent-patch method","volume":"9","author":"Dziedzic","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.21.3.233","article-title":"Exercise-induced trace mineral element concentration in regional versus whole-body wash-down sweat","volume":"21","author":"Baker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport. Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.17.6.574","article-title":"Sweat mineral-element responses during 7 h of exercise-heat stress","volume":"17","author":"Montain","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heffernan, S.M., Horner, K., De Vito, G., and Conway, G.E. (2019). The role of mineral and trace element supplementation in exercise and athletic performance: A systematic review. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11030696"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.2.585S","article-title":"Magnesium, zinc, and chromium nutriture and physical activity","volume":"72","author":"Lukaski","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-8981(01)00598-8","article-title":"Minerals, trace elements and related biological variables in athletes and during physical activity","volume":"312","author":"Speich","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2020.05.014","article-title":"Menstrual cycle and thermoregulation during exercise in the heat: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Giersch","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.90503.2008","article-title":"Na+ secretion rate increases proportionally more than the Na+ reabsorption rate with increases in sweat rate","volume":"105","author":"Buono","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2170\/jjphysiol.24.19","article-title":"Correlative relationships of response patterns between body temperature, sweat rate and sodium concentration in sweat during heat exposure in man","volume":"24","author":"Ohara","year":"1974","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5963","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2012.240739","article-title":"Does sex have an independent effect on thermoeffector responses during exercise in the heat?","volume":"590","author":"Gagnon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sex-related differences in sudomotor function in healthy early twenties focused on activated sweat gland density","volume":"63","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-018-1755-5","article-title":"Fluid intake in urban China: Results of the 2016 Liq.In7 national cross-sectional surveys","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/10\/1531\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T04:23:14Z","timestamp":1779423794000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/10\/1531"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18101531"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18101531","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]}}}