{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:54:58Z","timestamp":1785412498942,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779408000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HL147931"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HL147931"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["R01HL147931"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HL147931"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/012pb6c26","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases of the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T32DK137525"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32DK137525"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["T32DK137525"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32DK137525"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00adh9b73","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Short sleep and formula feeding during infancy are associated with increased risk of childhood obesity. Feeding practices and sleep arrangements vary during infancy and may also be dynamic, yet their impact on infant night sleep duration remains unclear. Understanding these relationships is crucial for formulating recommendations to support breastfeeding and address sleep concerns. Objective: We examined the association between feeding mode and parent-reported infant night sleep duration during the first postnatal year, while additionally evaluating night-weaning and bedsharing as contextual sleep-related practices. Methods: Infants in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area (n = 193) were followed up at 3, 8, 13, 26, 39, and 52 weeks post-birth. Sleep and feeding questionnaires were answered at each visit. A multilevel growth model estimated infant night sleep duration trajectories by feeding mode (ordinal: exclusive formula, mixed, exclusive breastfeeding), night-weaning, and bedsharing as time-variant predictors. Maternal education and household income were covariates to account for differences in study attrition. Results: Infant night sleep duration followed a curvilinear trajectory, starting at 7.92 h (95% CI: 5.78, 10.06) and increasing by 0.40 h\/month (95% CI: 0.21, 0.60), with a deceleration over time (0.02 h\/month2, p &lt; 0.001). Each increase in levels of breast milk consumption was associated with an increase in infant night sleep duration (B = 0.87 h, p &lt; 0.001), but the association weakened as the infant aged (B = \u22120.07 h\/month, p &lt; 0.001). Despite 59.7% of bedsharing infants being exclusively breastfed, bedsharing was not significantly associated with infant night sleep duration. Similarly, night-weaning was not significantly associated with infant night sleep duration. Conclusions: Breastfeeding is associated with longer infant night sleep duration, whereas bedsharing showed no association despite its correlation with breastfeeding. This research highlights the importance of breastfeeding in early life, not only for its developmental benefits but also for its relationship with infant night sleep duration, an essential component of healthy infant growth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18111650","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T09:17:09Z","timestamp":1779441429000},"page":"1650","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Feeding Mode Is Associated with Infant Night Sleep Trajectories During the First Postnatal Year"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4945-6530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Olson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"},{"name":"Center for Health Through Microbiomes, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4002-7497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"},{"name":"Biodesign Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Reifsnider","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ellmer School of Nursing, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6661-5732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dean V.","family":"Coonrod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Valleywise Health, Phoenix, AZ 85008, USA"},{"name":"College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Phoenix, AZ 85007, USA"},{"name":"School of Medicine, Creighton University, Phoenix, AZ 85012, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarada S.","family":"Panchanathan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"John Shufeldt School of Medicine and Medical Engineering, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Valleywise Health, Phoenix, AZ 85008, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megan E.","family":"Petrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3888-6348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Corrie M.","family":"Whisner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"},{"name":"Center for Health Through Microbiomes, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-013-1285-y","article-title":"Infant Obesity and Severe Obesity Growth Patterns in the First Two Years of Life","volume":"18","author":"Gittner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, J., Liu, L., Zhu, Y., Huang, G., and Wang, P.P. (2014). The Association between Breastfeeding and Childhood Obesity: A Meta-Analysis. BMC Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-1267"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.13133","article-title":"Long-term Consequences of Breastfeeding on Cholesterol, Obesity, Systolic Blood Pressure and Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"104","author":"Horta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedn.2020.04.024","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis of the Association Between Breastfeeding and Early Childhood Obesity","volume":"53","author":"Qiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zsy018","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsy018","article-title":"Sleep Duration and Incidence of Obesity in Infants, Children, and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies","volume":"41","author":"Miller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parkar, S., Kalsbeek, A., and Cheeseman, J. (2019). Potential Role for the Gut Microbiota in Modulating Host Circadian Rhythms and Metabolic Health. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7020041"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam, L.T., and Lam, M.K. (2021). Sleep Disorders in Early Childhood and the Development of Mental Health Problems in Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal and Prospective Studies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182211782"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2015.0187","article-title":"Later Emotional and Behavioral Problems Associated with Sleep Problems in Toddlers: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"169","author":"Sivertsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2018.04.005","article-title":"Shorter Sleep Duration Is Associated with Reduced Cognitive Development at Two Years of Age","volume":"48","author":"Smithson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.2147\/NSS.S125992","article-title":"Infant Sleep and Its Relation with Cognition and Growth: A Narrative Review","volume":"9","author":"Tham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Sci. Sleep"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s40101-022-00294-0","article-title":"Development of the Circadian System in Early Life: Maternal and Environmental Factors","volume":"41","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2014.0153","article-title":"Infant Sleep and Night Feeding Patterns During Later Infancy: Association with Breastfeeding Frequency, Daytime Complementary Food Intake, and Infant Weight","volume":"10","author":"Brown","year":"2015","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199211000-00003","article-title":"Sleep Organization and Energy Expenditure of Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants","volume":"32","author":"Butte","year":"1992","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-011-1659-3","article-title":"Breastfeeding May Improve Nocturnal Sleep and Reduce Infantile Colic: Potential Role of Breast Milk Melatonin","volume":"171","author":"Hadash","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1986","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab297","article-title":"Association between Breastfeeding and Sleep Patterns in Infants and Preschool Children","volume":"114","author":"Tham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.4114","article-title":"Longitudinal Study of Sleep Behavior in Normal Infants during the First Year of Life","volume":"10","author":"Bruni","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1552-6909.2008.00299.x","article-title":"Infant Sleep and Feeding","volume":"37","author":"Rosen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, X., Lovell, A.L., Braakhuis, A.J., Mithen, R.F., and Wall, C.R. (2021). Type of Milk Feeding and Introduction to Complementary Foods in Relation to Infant Sleep: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13114105"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer, R., Foong, R.-X.M., Thapar, N., Kritas, S., and Shah, N. (2015). Systematic Review of the Impact of Feed Protein Type and Degree of Hydrolysis on Gastric Emptying in Children. BMC Gastroenterol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-015-0369-0"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3718","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxab295","article-title":"Gastric Emptying and Intragastric Behavior of Breast Milk and Infant Formula in Lactating Mothers","volume":"151","author":"Camps","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-019-0368-x","article-title":"Human Milk as \u201cChrononutrition\u201d: Implications for Child Health and Development","volume":"85","author":"Saxbe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caba-Flores, M.D., Ramos-Ligonio, A., Camacho-Morales, A., Mart\u00ednez-Valenzuela, C., Viveros-Contreras, R., and Caba, M. (2022). Breast Milk and the Importance of Chrononutrition. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.867507"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00e4usler, S., Lanzinger, E., Sams, E., Fazelnia, C., Allmer, K., Binder, C., Reiter, R.J., and Felder, T.K. (2024). Melatonin in Human Breast Milk and Its Potential Role in Circadian Entrainment: A Nod towards Chrononutrition?. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16101422"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198311103091903","article-title":"Diet and Sleep Patterns in Newborn Infants","volume":"309","author":"Yogman","year":"1983","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woortman, M.A., Sun, H., Wang, J., Godoy-Vitorino, F., Mel\u00e9ndez, A.J.R., Rivera, M.C., Pi\u00f1ero, E.E.A., Engelhardt, K., Kleinman, L.C., and Dominguez-Bello, M.G. (2025). Day\/Night Fluctuations of Breast Milk Bioactive Factors and Microbiome. Front. Nutr., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1618784"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2016.03.003","article-title":"Parent-Child Bed-Sharing: The Good, the Bad, and the Burden of Evidence","volume":"32","author":"Battaini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-536X.2003.00243.x","article-title":"Breastfeeding, Bed-Sharing, and Infant Sleep","volume":"30","author":"Ball","year":"2003","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2021.101684","article-title":"Reasons Mothers Bedshare: A Review of Its Effects on Infant Behavior and Development","volume":"66","author":"Barry","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infant Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-014-1557-1","article-title":"Reasons for Mother\u2013Infant Bed-Sharing: A Systematic Narrative Synthesis of the Literature and Implications for Future Research","volume":"19","author":"Ward","year":"2015","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2017.08.003","article-title":"Sleep Location and Parent-Perceived Sleep Outcomes in Older Infants","volume":"39","author":"Mindell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000148","article-title":"Sleep Arrangements, Parent\u2013Infant Sleep during the First Year, and Family Functioning","volume":"52","author":"Teti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/20.2.142","article-title":"Maternal Sleep and Arousals During Bedsharing with Infants","volume":"20","author":"Mosko","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022057990","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-057990","article-title":"The Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and the Committee on Fetus and Newborn Sleep-Related Infant Deaths: Updated 2022 Recommendations for Reducing Infant Deaths in the Sleep Environment","volume":"150","author":"Moon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1097\/00004703-200406000-00001","article-title":"Frequency of Bed Sharing and Its Relationship to Breastfeeding","volume":"25","author":"McCoy","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrov, M.E., Jiao, N., Panchanathan, S.S., Reifsnider, E., Coonrod, D.V., Liu, L., Krajmalnik-Brown, R., Gu, H., Davidson, L.A., and Chapkin, R.S. (2021). Protocol of the Snuggle Bug\/Acurrucadito Study: A Longitudinal Study Investigating the Influences of Sleep-Wake Patterns and Gut Microbiome Development in Infancy on Rapid Weight Gain, an Early Risk Factor for Obesity. BMC Pediatr., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-021-02832-8"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e570","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.113.6.e570","article-title":"A Brief Screening Questionnaire for Infant Sleep Problems: Validation and Findings for an Internet Sample","volume":"113","author":"Sadeh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using Lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v082.i13","article-title":"lmerTest Package: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models","volume":"82","author":"Kuznetsova","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2041-210x.2012.00261.x","article-title":"A General and Simple Method for Obtaining R2 from Generalized Linear Mixed-Effects Models","volume":"4","author":"Nakagawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Barto\u0144, K. (2025, November 10). MuMIn: Multi-Model Inference, Available online: https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=MuMIn."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"657","article-title":"The Circadian Rhythm of Tryptophan in Breast Milk Affects the Rhythms of 6-Sulfatoxymelatonin and Sleep in Newborn","volume":"26","author":"Cubero","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjnut.2022.12.018","article-title":"Association of Breastfeeding Practices During the First 3 Months with Infant Sleep Trajectories: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"153","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3028","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81970-6","article-title":"Daytime Nap and Nighttime Breastfeeding Are Associated with Toddlers\u2019 Nighttime Sleep","volume":"11","author":"Nakagawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1053\/sper.2000.8594","article-title":"Melatonin and Development: Physiology and Pharmacology","volume":"24","author":"Kennaway","year":"2000","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"360","article-title":"Chrononutrition Applied to Formula Milks to Consolidate Infants\u2019 Sleep\/Wake Cycle","volume":"28","author":"Cubero","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/10284150701455916","article-title":"Chrononutrition: Use of Dissociated Day\/Night Infant Milk Formulas to Improve the Development of the Wake-Sleep Rhythms. Effects of Tryptophan","volume":"10","author":"Aparicio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13072","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.13072","article-title":"Infant Feeding Practices and Sleep at 1 Year of Age in the Nationwide ELFE Cohort","volume":"17","author":"Messayke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2020.10.005","article-title":"Sleeping through the Night or through the Nights?","volume":"76","author":"Pennestri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F24","DOI":"10.1136\/fn.71.1.F24","article-title":"Gastric Emptying in Preterm Infants","volume":"71","author":"Ewer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/11\/1650\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T09:32:45Z","timestamp":1779442365000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/11\/1650"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18111650"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18111650","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]}}}