{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:45:48Z","timestamp":1785415548766,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":327,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Research Foundation - Flanders","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1297623N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1297623N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["1297623N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1297623N"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03qtxy027","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Emerging evidence indicates that epilepsy extends beyond the brain, involving systemic metabolic, immune, and microbiome perturbations that shape neuronal excitability and treatment response. Canine idiopathic epilepsy (CE) offers a naturally occurring model with strong electrophysiological, pharmacological, and clinical homology to human epilepsies. Methods: This scoping review was conducted according to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A systematic literature search was performed in Web of Science and MEDLINE (PubMed) to identify original studies reporting metabolic, immunometabolic, or neurochemical alterations in CE compared with healthy controls. Eligible studies included peer-reviewed original research involving client-owned dogs diagnosed with CE according to international consensus criteria (IVETF guidelines). Studies focusing exclusively on genetics or neuroimaging without metabolic outcomes were excluded. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were screened for eligibility, and data were extracted from included studies using a standardized approach. Identified metabolic domains were synthesized narratively and grouped into functional systems, including amino acid and lipid metabolism, micronutrients, neurotransmission, oxidative stress, inflammation and immunology, endocannabinoid signalling, microRNAs, and gut\u2013brain axis-related pathways. In a second step, the identified metabolic domains were evaluated for translational relevance through a targeted, non-systematic narrative synthesis of the human epilepsy literature. This approach aimed to assess cross-species parallels and to provide a conceptual framework to guide future research, rather than to perform a comprehensive systematic review of metabolic alterations in human epilepsy. Results: Across CE studies, consistent alterations were observed in multiple interconnected functional systems, including metabolic, immune, and gut\u2013brain axis pathways, in agreement with findings reported for human epilepsy. These data support a model of epileptogenesis involving systemic dysfunction beyond the central nervous system. Translationally, these findings suggest opportunities for biomarker development, patient stratification, and mechanism-based interventions, including dietary and metabolic approaches (e.g., medium-chain triglyceride supplementation), microbiome modulation, and immunometabolic targeting. The current evidence is limited by small and heterogeneous cohorts, potential confounding effects of antiseizure medications, variability in dietary and fasting conditions, breed-related effects, and a predominance of associative over causal relationships. Conclusions: This review positions CE as a reference framework for future research into epilepsy metabolism, integrating current evidence and its translational relevance to human disease. The findings support a shift toward a systems-level view of epileptogenesis, involving interconnected metabolic, immune, and gut\u2013brain axis pathways beyond the brain. CE represents a valuable translational model to identify shared mechanisms, inform biomarker discovery, and guide the development of mechanism-based therapeutic strategies across veterinary and human epilepsy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18111734","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T10:06:56Z","timestamp":1780049216000},"page":"1734","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Canine Idiopathic Epilepsy as a Natural Animal Model for Human Epilepsy: A Scoping Review Highlighting Metabolic Perspectives Beyond the Brain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0449-9407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Cabri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Equine and Companion Animal Nutrition, Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3590-8348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofie F. M.","family":"Bhatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Small Animal Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2451-3375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lieselot Y.","family":"Hemeryck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Metabolomics (LIMET), Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4180-8896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Boon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Ghent University Hospital and 4Brain, Ghent University, C. Heymanslaan 10, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7312-638X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Holger A.","family":"Volk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9423-9765","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Myriam","family":"Hesta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Equine and Companion Animal Nutrition, Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0652-1961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fien","family":"Verdoodt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Equine and Companion Animal Nutrition, Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"},{"name":"Small Animal Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"},{"name":"Laboratory of Integrative Metabolomics (LIMET), Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2025.110601","article-title":"Health-Related Quality of Life and Unmet Needs of People with Epilepsy and Their Family Caregivers: A Systematic Scoping Review","volume":"171","author":"Boele","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019). EPILEPSY: A Public Health Imperative International League Against Epilepsy, WHO."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12972","article-title":"Prevalence and Etiology of Epilepsy in a Norwegian County\u2014A Population Based Study","volume":"56","author":"Syvertsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.120.019539","article-title":"Drug Resistance in Epilepsy: Clinical Impact, Potential Mechanisms, and New Innovative Treatment Options","volume":"72","author":"Potschka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15262","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-99805-z","article-title":"Untargeted Metabolomics Reveals Key Metabolic Alterations in Pediatric Epilepsy with Insights into Tryptophan Metabolism and the Gut\u2013Brain Axis","volume":"15","author":"Chojnowski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10586","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-46373-8","article-title":"Urinary Volatile Metabolites of Amygdala-Kindled Mice Reveal Novel Biomarkers Associated with Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"9","author":"Fujita","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15035","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51337-z","article-title":"NMR-Based Metabolomics in Pediatric Drug Resistant Epilepsy\u2014Preliminary Results","volume":"9","author":"Boguszewicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2020.107690","article-title":"Canine Detection of Volatile Organic Compounds Unique to Human Epileptic Seizure","volume":"115","author":"Maa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1177\/15357597221074518","article-title":"Harnessing Metabolomics to Advance Epilepsy Research","volume":"22","author":"Eid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsy Curr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17236","article-title":"ILAE Definition of the Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy Syndromes: Position Statement by the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions","volume":"63","author":"Hirsch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pmbts.2022.04.001","article-title":"Precision Medicine in Epilepsy","volume":"190","author":"McGinn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berendt, M., Farquhar, R.G., Mandigers, P.J.J., Pakozdy, A., Bhatti, S.F.M., De Risio, L., Fischer, A., Long, S., Matiasek, K., and Mu\u00f1ana, K. (2015). International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force Consensus Report on Epilepsy Definition, Classification and Terminology in Companion Animals. BMC Vet. Res., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-015-0461-2"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Risio, L., Bhatti, S., Mu\u00f1ana, K., Penderis, J., Stein, V., Tipold, A., Berendt, M., Farqhuar, R., Fischer, A., and Long, S. (2015). International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force Consensus Proposal: Diagnostic Approach to Epilepsy in Dogs. BMC Vet. Res., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-015-0462-1"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105956","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2023.105956","article-title":"Translational Veterinary Epilepsy: A Win-Win Situation for Human and Veterinary Neurology","volume":"293","author":"Charalambous","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f6scher, W. (2022). Dogs as a Natural Animal Model of Epilepsy. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.928009"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12138","article-title":"Canine Epilepsy as a Translational Model?","volume":"54","author":"Potschka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-018-0074-z","article-title":"A Cross-Species Approach to Disorders Affecting Brain and Behaviour","volume":"14","author":"Devinsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1790","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16972","article-title":"Dietary Medium Chain Triglycerides for Management of Epilepsy: New Data from Human, Dog, and Rodent Studies","volume":"62","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0450-3","article-title":"Similarity of the Dog and Human Gut Microbiomes in Gene Content and Response to Diet","volume":"6","author":"Coelho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.18028","article-title":"WONOEP 2022: Neurotechnology for the Diagnosis of Epilepsy","volume":"65","author":"Wagstyl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2306","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14770","article-title":"Uncovering the Influence of Diet and Gut Microbiota in Human Serum Metabolome","volume":"76","author":"Obeso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.17008","article-title":"Serum Concentrations of Complement C3 and C4 in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy","volume":"38","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2012.00991.x","article-title":"Fibrinolytic Activity in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Dogs with Different Neurological Disorders","volume":"26","author":"Monreal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostic, D., Carlson, R., Henke, D., Rohn, K., and Tipold, A. (2019). Evaluation of IL-1\u03b2 Levels in Epilepsy and Traumatic Brain Injury in Dogs. BMC Neurosci., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-019-0509-5"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Despa, A., Musteata, M., and Solcan, G. (2024). Evaluation of Blood C Reactive Protein (CRP) and Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) Utility in Canine Epilepsy. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci11090408"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15940","article-title":"Evaluation of Serum High-mobility Group Box 1 Concentration in Dogs with Epilepsy: A Case-control Study","volume":"34","author":"Koo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"von R\u00fcden, E.-L., Gualtieri, F., Sch\u00f6nhoff, K., Reiber, M., Wolf, F., Baumg\u00e4rtner, W., Hansmann, F., Tipold, A., and Potschka, H. (2020). Molecular Alterations of the TLR4-Signaling Cascade in Canine Epilepsy. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-2241-x"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"79","article-title":"C-Reactief Prote\u00efneconcentraties in Het Serum van Honden Met Idiopathische Epilepsie","volume":"86","author":"Segers","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vlaams Diergeneeskd. Tijdschr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/vcp.12443","article-title":"Serum Creatine Kinase Isoenzymes and Macroenzymes in Dogs with Different Neurologic Diseases","volume":"46","author":"Paltrinieri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12462","article-title":"Tumor Necrosis Factor-\u03b1 and Interleukin-6 Concentrations in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Dogs After Seizures","volume":"28","author":"Merbl","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16744","article-title":"Investigation of the Presence of Specific Neural Antibodies in Dogs with Epilepsy or Dyskinesia Using Murine and Human Assays","volume":"37","author":"Hemmeter","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knebel, A., K\u00e4mpe, A., Carlson, R., Rohn, K., and Tipold, A. (2022). Th17 Cell-Mediated Immune Response in a Subpopulation of Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262285"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2020.103997","article-title":"Quantitative Proteomics of Cerebrospinal Fluid Using Tandem Mass Tags in Dogs with Recurrent Epileptic Seizures","volume":"231","author":"Baka","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phochantachinda, S., Chantong, B., Reamtong, O., and Chatchaisak, D. (2023). Protein Profiling and Assessment of Amyloid Beta Levels in Plasma in Canine Refractory Epilepsy. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1258244"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2023.105034","article-title":"Quantitative Serum Proteome Analysis Using Tandem Mass Tags in Dogs with Epilepsy","volume":"290","author":"Baka","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.18256","article-title":"Plasma Metabolome Reveals Altered Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Amino Acid Metabolism in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy","volume":"66","author":"Verdoodt","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.13-0520","article-title":"Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-Based Metabolic Profiling of Cerebrospinal Fluid from Epileptic Dogs","volume":"76","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1623663","article-title":"Untersuchungen zu erniedrigten Glukosewertenim Liquor cerebrospinalis des Hundes [Evaluation of decreased glucose levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of dogs]","volume":"40","author":"Weber","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tierarztl. Prax. Ausg. K. Kleintiere Heimtiere"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27024","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-09919-7","article-title":"The Fecal Metabolome and Microbiome Are Altered in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy Compared to Healthy Dogs","volume":"15","author":"Verdoodt","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Belenguer, S., Grasa, L., Valero, O., Palacio, J., Lu\u00f1o, I., and Rosado, B. (2021). Gut Microbiota in Canine Idiopathic Epilepsy: Effects of Disease and Treatment. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11113121"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s42523-020-00036-6","article-title":"Evaluation of fecal Lactobacillus populations in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy: A pilot study","volume":"2","author":"Jacob","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s42523-025-00397-w","article-title":"Idiopathic Epilepsy in Dogs Is Associated with Dysbiotic Faecal Microbiota","volume":"7","author":"Silvestrino","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anim. Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yonezawa, T., Takenouchi, S., Motegi, T., Miyazaki, M., Nagata, N., Kobayashi, K., Yamada, M., and Murata, T. (2024). Lipid Metabolites and Nitric Oxide Production in the Cerebrospinal Fluid and Plasma of Dogs with Meningoencephalitis of Unknown Origin and Idiopathic Epilepsy: A Pilot Study. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1397868"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.233.8.1270","article-title":"Serum Triglyceride Concentration in dogs with Epilepsy Treated with phenobarbital or with Phenobarbital and Bromide","volume":"233","author":"Kluger","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2023.105076","article-title":"Serum Oxidant\u2013Antioxidant Status and Butyrylcholinesterase Activity in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy\u2014A Pilot Study","volume":"165","author":"Spariosu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosendahl, S., Anturaniemi, J., Kukko-Lukjanov, T.-K., Vuori, K.A., Moore, R., Hemida, M., Muhle, A., and Hielm-Bj\u00f6rkman, A. (2023). Whole Blood Trace Element and Toxic Metal Concentration in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy and Healthy Dogs: A Case-Control Study. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.1066851"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16698","article-title":"Mineral, Trace Element, and Toxic Metal Concentration in Hair from Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy Compared to Healthy Controls","volume":"37","author":"Rosendahl","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitale, S., Hague, D.W., Foss, K., de Godoy, M.C., and Selmic, L.E. (2019). Comparison of Serum Trace Nutrient Concentrations in Epileptics Compared to Healthy Dogs. Front. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00467"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt, T., Meller, S., Talbot, S.R., Berk, B.A., Law, T.H., Hobbs, S.L., Meyerhoff, N., Packer, R.M.A., and Volk, H.A. (2022). Urinary Neurotransmitter Patterns Are Altered in Canine Epilepsy. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.893013"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2004.65.1108","article-title":"Inhibitory and Excitatory Neurotransmitters in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Epileptic Dogs","volume":"65","author":"Ellenberger","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.67.1119","article-title":"Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters in the Cerebrum of Familial Idiopathic Epileptic Shetland Sheepdogs Using an Intracerebral Microdialysis Technique and Immunohistochemical Study for Glutamate Metabolism","volume":"67","author":"Morita","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Veter. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gesell, F.K., Zoerner, A.A., Brauer, C., Engeli, S., Tsikas, D., and Tipold, A. (2013). Alterations of Endocannabinoids in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Dogs with Epileptic Seizure Disorder. BMC Vet. Res., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-9-262"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3138","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-29868-3","article-title":"Hippocampal Expression of the Cannabinoid Receptor Type 1 in Canine Epilepsy","volume":"13","author":"Kostic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Gracia, M., Moreno-Martinez, L., Hernaiz, A., Us\u00f3n, S., Moral, J., Sanz-Rubio, D., Zaragoza, P., Palacio, J., Rosado, B., and Osta, R. (2024). Analysis of Plasma-Derived Exosomal MicroRNAs as Potential Biomarkers for Canine Idiopathic Epilepsy. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14020252"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"106014","article-title":"The Role of Neuroinflammation in Canine Epilepsy","volume":"298\u2013299","author":"Potschka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguilar-Castillo, M.J., Cabezudo-Garc\u00eda, P., Garc\u00eda-Mart\u00edn, G., Lopez-Moreno, Y., Estivill-Torr\u00fas, G., Ciano-Petersen, N.L., Oliver-Martos, B., Narv\u00e1ez-Pelaez, M., and Serrano-Castro, P.J. (2024). A Systematic Review of the Predictive and Diagnostic Uses of Neuroinflammation Biomarkers for Epileptogenesis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25126488"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costagliola, G., Depietri, G., Michev, A., Riva, A., Foiadelli, T., Savasta, S., Bonuccelli, A., Peroni, D., Consolini, R., and Marseglia, G.L. (2022). Targeting Inflammatory Mediators in Epilepsy: A Systematic Review of Its Molecular Basis and Clinical Applications. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.741244"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4511","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02043-9","article-title":"Heat Shock Proteins Accelerate the Maturation of Brain Endothelial Cell Glucocorticoid Receptor in Focal Human Drug-Resistant Epilepsy","volume":"57","author":"Hossain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2013.01.050","article-title":"Cell Death and Survival Mechanisms Are Concomitantly Active in the Hippocampus of Patients with Mesial Temporal Sclerosis","volume":"237","author":"Dericioglu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2012.03459.x","article-title":"Neurofilament Heavy Chain and Heat Shock Protein 70 as Markers of Seizure-Related Brain Injury","volume":"53","author":"Rejdak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3997","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-025-08217-4","article-title":"Increased Expression of Proinflammatory Cytokines in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with a History of Electrical Status Epilepticus in Sleep","volume":"46","author":"Ye","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2025.104289","article-title":"V Molecular Biomarkers of Glial Activation and Injury in Epilepsy","volume":"30","author":"Kalsariya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2005.00298.x","article-title":"Brain Inflammation in Epilepsy: Experimental and Clinical Evidence","volume":"46","author":"Vezzani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2010.178","article-title":"The Role of Inflammation in Epilepsy","volume":"7","author":"Vezzani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.293134","article-title":"Regulation of Neuroimmune Processes by Damage- and Resolution-Associated Molecular Patterns","volume":"16","author":"Klegeris","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0b013e31817f4ce0","article-title":"Regulation of Apoptotic and Inflammatory Cell Signaling in Cerebral Ischemia The Complex Roles of Heat Shock Protein 70","volume":"109","author":"Giffard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1592-3","article-title":"Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) Inhibitors: Future Therapeutic Strategies for Epilepsy Management","volume":"16","author":"Rawat","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2127","article-title":"Toll-like Receptor 4 and High-Mobility Group Box-1 Are Involved in Ictogenesis and Can Be Targeted to Reduce Seizures","volume":"16","author":"Maroso","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1692","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx073","article-title":"Imaging Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction as a Biomarker for Epileptogenesis","volume":"140","author":"Lublinsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.14739","article-title":"Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Canine Epileptic Seizures Detected by Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging","volume":"60","author":"Hanael","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40S","DOI":"10.1177\/1535759720948900","article-title":"Brain Inflammation and Seizures: Evolving Concepts and New Findings in the Last 2 Decades","volume":"20","author":"Vezzani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epilepsy Curr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1353\/pbm.1993.0004","article-title":"Regulation of the Acute Phase Response by Cytokines","volume":"36","author":"Kushner","year":"1993","journal-title":"Perspect. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3211","DOI":"10.1002\/vetr.3211","article-title":"Serum C-Reactive Protein Concentrations in Dogs with Structural and Idiopathic Epilepsy","volume":"193","author":"Mahon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.05.013","article-title":"11,12 -Epoxyeicosatrienoic Acid (11,12 EET) Reduces Excitability and Excitatory Transmission in the Hippocampus","volume":"123","author":"Mule","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.113.174599","article-title":"A Mathematical Model of Tryptophan Metabolism via the Kynurenine Pathway Provides Insights into the Effects of Vitamin B-6 Deficiency, Tryptophan Loading, and Induction of Tryptophan 2,3-Dioxygenase on Tryptophan Metabolites","volume":"143","author":"Nijhout","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.05.003","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Regulation of Tryptophan Metabolism in Health and Disease","volume":"23","author":"Agus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2023.06.004","article-title":"Tryptophan Metabolism in Health and Disease","volume":"35","author":"Xue","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1159\/000320765","article-title":"Guanidino Compounds as Cause of Cardiovascular Damage in Chronic Kidney Disease: An in Vitro Evaluation","volume":"30","author":"Schepers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Blood Purif."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/2045-8118-8-13","article-title":"Transport Characteristics of Guanidino Compounds at the Blood-Brain Barrier and Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier: Relevance to Neural Disorders","volume":"8","author":"Tachikawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-020-01833-1","article-title":"Age-Dependent Involvement of Gut Mast Cells and Histamine in Post-Stroke Inflammation","volume":"17","author":"Blasco","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-02887-7","article-title":"Stabilizing Histamine Release in Gut Mast Cells Mitigates Peripheral and Central Inflammation after Stroke","volume":"20","author":"Conesa","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2025.108996","article-title":"Clinical Utility of Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) for Epileptic Seizures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"256","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4973996","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4973996","article-title":"Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio in Epilepsy: A Systematic Review","volume":"2022","author":"Hosseini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.70123","article-title":"Predictive Value of Traditional Laboratory Parameters and Inflammatory Indices for Same-Day Seizure Recurrence in Patients with Epileptic Seizures","volume":"10","author":"Alemdar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247724","DOI":"10.1155\/mi\/2247724","article-title":"Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio as a Potential Predictive Marker for Epileptic Seizures: Unveiling the \u201cV\u201d-Shaped Link","volume":"2025","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.62641\/aep.v53i4.1790","article-title":"A Correlation between Inflammatory Factors and Epileptic Seizures: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"53","author":"Cao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Actas Esp. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, R., Chen, Q., Li, M., Zhang, X., and Lin, W. (2019). Elevated Blood C-Reactive Protein Levels in Patients With Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00974"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y.F., Huang, Y., and Liu, G.H. (2022). Effects of Levetiracetam on the Serum C-Reactive Protein in Children With Epilepsy: A Meta-Analysis. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.810617"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.104280","article-title":"Decreased Cerebrospinal Fluid Kynurenic Acid in Epileptic Spasms: A Biomarker of Response to Corticosteroids","volume":"84","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14398","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14398","article-title":"Abnormalities in Clostridioides and Related Metabolites before ACTH Treatment May Be Associated with Its Efficacy in Patients with Infantile Epileptic Spasm Syndrome","volume":"30","author":"Wan","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1080\/14740338.2022.2023128","article-title":"Cardiac Adverse Effects of Antiseizure Medications","volume":"21","author":"Zaccara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.2174\/011573398X279958240131101144","article-title":"Unravelling the Impact: Pulmonary Side Effects of Anti-Seizure Medications","volume":"21","author":"Butera","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Respir. Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y.Q., Yang, H.C., He, C., Wang, Y.H., Zheng, J., Wang, X.Y., Hao, F.Y., Feng, C.W., Ma, L., and Zhang, Y.H. (2025). Inflammatory Links between Epilepsy and Depression: A Review of Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies. Front. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2025.1614297"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2908","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-025-01594-8","article-title":"Neuroinflammation Leads to Pharmacoresistance in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy via Promoting Spermine Degradation","volume":"46","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4253","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.14491","article-title":"Effects of Levetiracetam on Astroglial Release of Kynurenine-Pathway Metabolites","volume":"175","author":"Fukuyama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2007.06.053","article-title":"Valproic Acid and Other Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Induce Microglial Apoptosis and Attenuate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity","volume":"149","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1080\/08923973.2025.2517634","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects of Valproate and Carbamazepine Involve Distinct Signaling in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells","volume":"47","author":"Drakul","year":"2025","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2018.05.016","article-title":"Complement System Biomarkers in Epilepsy","volume":"60","author":"Kopczynska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-025-02385-w","article-title":"Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 and Complement C3 Involvement in Febrile Seizures in Children","volume":"75","author":"Karahan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2017.09.005","article-title":"Complement System Dysregulation in Patients Affected by Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy and the Effect of Antiepileptic Treatment","volume":"137","author":"Liguori","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5096","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-88654-5","article-title":"Drug-Resistant Epilepsy Associated with Peripheral Complement Decreases and Sex-Specific Cytokine Imbalances: A Pilot Study","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1111\/vcp.13380","article-title":"Thromboelastography in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy Treated with Phenobarbital Monotherapy","volume":"53","author":"Pastor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huenerfauth, E.I., Bien, C.G., Bien, C., Volk, H.A., and Meyerhoff, N. (2022). Case Report: Anti-GABAA Receptor Encephalitis in a Dog. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.886711"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17265","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.17265","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid-specific Oligoclonal Bands in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy","volume":"39","author":"Maiolini","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Zhang, P., Xu, F., Zheng, Y., and Zhao, H. (2023). Advances in the Study of IL-17 in Neurological Diseases and Mental Disorders. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1284304"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.5937\/jomb0-52052","article-title":"Effect of Carbamazepine and Levetiracetam on Coagulation Parameters: Prothrombin Time, Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time, D-Dimer, and Fibrinogen Levels","volume":"44","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Med. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1066","article-title":"WONOEP XVII Appraisal: The Immunopathogenesis of Epilepsy","volume":"67","author":"Thergarajan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"105974","article-title":"A Feline Model of Spontaneously Occurring Autoimmune Limbic Encephalitis","volume":"296\u2013297","author":"Klang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabezudo-Garc\u00eda, P., Ciano-Petersen, N.L., Mena-V\u00e1zquez, N., Ortega-Pinazo, J., Postigo-Pozo, M.J., Garc\u00eda-Mart\u00edn, G., Antol\u00ed-Mart\u00ednez, H., S\u00e1nchez-S\u00e1nchez, V., Quiroga-Subirana, P., and Serrano-Castro, P.J. (2021). Prevalence of Neural Autoantibodies in Paired Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid in Adult Patients with Drug-Resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy of Unknown Etiology. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10214843"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levite, M., and Goldberg, H. (2022). Autoimmune Epilepsy\u2014Novel Multidisciplinary Analysis, Discoveries and Insights. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.762743"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abi6087","article-title":"Signaling Inflammation across the Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"374","author":"Agirman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2014.07.027","article-title":"Serotonin, Tryptophan Metabolism and the Brain-Gut-Microbiome Axis","volume":"277","author":"Clarke","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-024-01108-6","article-title":"Feeding Gut Microbes to Nourish the Brain: Unravelling the Diet\u2013Microbiota\u2013Gut\u2013Brain Axis","volume":"6","author":"Schneider","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, H., Wang, W., and Li, Y. (2024). The Interplay between Microbiota and Brain-Gut Axis in Epilepsy Treatment. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1276551"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanquet, L., Serra, D., Marrinhas, C., and Almeida, A. (2025). Exploring Gut Microbiota-Targeted Therapies for Canine Idiopathic Epilepsy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26041742"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gernone, F., Uva, A., Silvestrino, M., Cavalera, M.A., and Zatelli, A. (2022). Role of Gut Microbiota through Gut\u2013Brain Axis in Epileptogenesis: A Systematic Review of Human and Veterinary Medicine. Biology, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11091290"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22593","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-46062-7","article-title":"Multicenter Evaluation of Gut Microbiome Profiling by Next-Generation Sequencing Reveals Major Biases in Partial-Length Metabarcoding Approach","volume":"13","author":"Roume","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-024-13198-z","article-title":"Quantifying Variation across 16S RRNA Gene Sequencing Runs in Human Microbiome Studies","volume":"108","author":"Hoisington","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9785","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-57981-4","article-title":"Variability and Bias in Microbiome Metagenomic Sequencing: An Interlaboratory Study Comparing Experimental Protocols","volume":"14","author":"Forry","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2025.105888","article-title":"Effect of Lactobacillus Supplementation on Seizure Control, Gut Microbiota, and Blood Neurotransmitters in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy","volume":"196","author":"Rosado","year":"2025","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-018-0135-7","article-title":"The Fecal Metabolome as a Functional Readout of the Gut Microbiome","volume":"50","author":"Zierer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1744512","article-title":"Dietary Polyphenol Impact on Gut Health and Microbiota","volume":"61","author":"Wan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, G., Liu, S., Liu, Z., Chen, Y., Wu, T., Lou, J., Wang, H., Zou, Y., Sun, Y., and Rao, B. (2022). Gut Microbiome Distinguishes Patients With Epilepsy From Healthy Individuals. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.696632"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, K., Jia, L., Mao, Z., Si, P., Sun, C., Qu, Z., and Wang, W. (2023). Integrated Macrogenomics and Metabolomics Explore Alterations and Correlation between Gut Microbiota and Serum Metabolites in Adult Epileptic Patients: A Pilot Study. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11112628"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, X., Liu, X., Chen, C., Lin, J., Li, A., Guo, K., An, D., Zhou, D., and Hong, Z. (2020). Alteration of Gut Microbiota in Patients With Epilepsy and the Potential Index as a Biomarker. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.517797"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2021.104899","article-title":"Gut Flora and Metabolism Are Altered in Epilepsy and Partially Restored after Ketogenic Diets","volume":"155","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00559-y","article-title":"Prevotella Diversity, Niches and Interactions with the Human Host","volume":"19","author":"Tett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6164","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v23.i33.6164","article-title":"Ketogenic Diet Poses a Significant Effect on Imbalanced Gut Microbiota in Infants with Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"23","author":"Xie","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, Y., Cao, S., and Yang, H. (2023). Roles of Gut Microbiome in Epilepsy Risk: A Mendelian Randomization Study. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1115014"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2024.107266","article-title":"The Alteration of Gut Microbiota Composition in Patients with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"199","author":"Mousavi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2015.07.034","article-title":"How Does the Ketogenic Diet Induce Anti-Seizure Effects?","volume":"637","author":"Rho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.04.027","article-title":"The Gut Microbiota Mediates the Anti-Seizure Effects of the Ketogenic Diet","volume":"173","author":"Olson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12114","article-title":"Facilitation of Kindling Epileptogenesis by Chronic Stress May Be Mediated by Intestinal Microbiome","volume":"3","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17248","article-title":"Susceptibility to Epilepsy after Traumatic Brain Injury Is Associated with Preexistent Gut Microbiome Profile","volume":"63","author":"Lagishetty","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2959","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-017-2509-x","article-title":"Mechanisms and Consequences of Intestinal Dysbiosis","volume":"74","author":"Weiss","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2018.09.013","article-title":"Altered Composition of the Gut Microbiome in Patients with Drug-Resistant Epilepsy","volume":"147","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Chiu, A.T.G., Li, V.W.Y., Zhang, X., Yeung, W.L., Chan, S.H.S., and Tun, H.M. (2023). The Role of the Gut-Microbiome-Brain Axis in Metabolic Remodeling amongst Children with Cerebral Palsy and Epilepsy. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1109469"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmz127","article-title":"Tryptophan Metabolism: A Link between the Gut Microbiota and Brain","volume":"11","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"e76","article-title":"Pharmacoresistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Modifies Histamine Turnover and H3 Receptor Function in the Human Hippocampus and Temporal Neocortex","volume":"57","author":"Velasco","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.15692","article-title":"Central Histaminergic Signalling, Neural Excitability and Epilepsy","volume":"179","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"361","article-title":"Effects of Histidine, a Precursor of Histamine, on Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Seizures in Rats","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2006.06.022","article-title":"Mechanism of Imipramine-Induced Seizures in Amygdala-Kindled Rats","volume":"72","author":"Ago","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.119.264408","article-title":"Mouse Colonic Epithelial Cells Functionally Express the Histamine H4 Receptor","volume":"373","author":"Schirmer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.07.003","article-title":"High-Throughput Screen Identifies Host and Microbiota Regulators of Intestinal Barrier Function","volume":"159","author":"Grosheva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-2728(98)00114-5","article-title":"Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"1366","author":"Beal","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Bioenerg."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(00)00397-3","article-title":"Mitochondrial Superoxide Production in Kainate-Induced Hippocampal Damage","volume":"101","author":"Liang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2010.02.002","article-title":"Byproducts of Protein, Lipid and DNA Oxidative Damage and Antioxidant Enzyme Activities in Seizure","volume":"19","author":"Ercegovac","year":"2010","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2006.11.019","article-title":"Oxidative Stress Markers in Surgically Treated Patients with Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"40","author":"Lorigados","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1177\/096032719701600308","article-title":"Phenytoin-Mediated Oxidative Stress in Serum of Female Epileptics: A Possible Pathogenesis in the Fetal Hydantoin Syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2022.05.015","article-title":"Circulating Malondialdehyde Level in Patients with Epilepsy: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"99","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Seizure Eur. J. Epilepsy"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1007\/s43440-020-00143-w","article-title":"Role of Oxidative Stress in Epileptogenesis and Potential Implications for Therapy","volume":"72","author":"Czuczwar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awz130","article-title":"Targeting Oxidative Stress Improves Disease Outcomes in a Rat Model of Acquired Epilepsy","volume":"142","author":"Pauletti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-022-03201-x","article-title":"Protective Effect of Sulforaphane on Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction Associated with Status Epilepticus in Immature Rats","volume":"60","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2006.pto_377.x","article-title":"Facilitation Action of N-Acetylcysteine on the Anticonvulsant Effect of Sodium Valproate in Mice","volume":"98","author":"Devi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-019-01675-6","article-title":"Rosmarinic Acid Improves Oxidative Stress Parameters and Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Activity Following 4-Aminopyridine and Picrotoxin-Induced Seizure in Mice","volume":"392","author":"Luft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedeb. Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2012.04.006","article-title":"Anticonvulsant and Antioxidative Activity of Hydroalcoholic Extract of Tuber of Orchis Mascula in Pentylenetetrazole and Maximal Electroshock Induced Seizures in Rats","volume":"142","author":"Pahuja","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1515\/jbcpp-2016-0034","article-title":"Comparative Studies on the Effects of Clinically Used Anticonvulsants on the Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Model of Epileptogenesis in Mice","volume":"28","author":"Mazhar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7613.48890","article-title":"Influence of Nebivolol on Anticonvulsant Effect of Lamotrigine","volume":"41","author":"Goel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2004.11.007","article-title":"Seizure-Induced Oxidative Stress in Rat Brain Regions: Blockade by NNOS Inhibition","volume":"80","author":"Rajasekaran","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5820","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.5820","article-title":"Hippocampal Metabolic Profile during Epileptogenesis in the Pilocarpine Model of Epilepsy","volume":"38","author":"Meier","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12712","article-title":"Integrating Metabolomics and Lipidomics Revealed a Decrease in Plasma Fatty Acids but an Increase in Triglycerides in Children with Drug-Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"8","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarecka-Hujar, B., Szo\u0142tysek-Bo\u0142dys, I., and Kopyta, I. (2022). Do Antiepileptic Drugs Change the Levels of Arginine Derivatives in Epileptic Children Treated with Polytherapy? The Results of a Case\u2013Control Study. Children, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/children9111709"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-025-01231-2","article-title":"Effects of Antiseizure Medications on Lipid Profile and Weight in Patients with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis","volume":"39","author":"Arturo","year":"2025","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watanangura, A., Meller, S., Suchodolski, J.S., Pilla, R., Khattab, M.R., Loderstedt, S., Becker, L.F., Bathen-N\u00f6then, A., Mazzuoli-Weber, G., and Volk, H.A. (2022). The Effect of Phenobarbital Treatment on Behavioral Comorbidities and on the Composition and Function of the Fecal Microbiome in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.933905"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elfers, K., Watanangura, A., Hoffmann, P., Suchodolski, J.S., Khattab, M.R., Pilla, R., Meller, S., Volk, H.A., and Mazzuoli-Weber, G. (2024). Fecal Supernatants from Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy Activate Enteric Neurons. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1281840"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, C., Gong, S., Xiang, S., Liang, L., Hu, X., Huang, R., Liao, Z., Ma, Y., Xiao, Z., and Qiu, J. (2022). Changes and Significance of Gut Microbiota in Children with Focal Epilepsy before and after Treatment. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.965471"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1002\/epd2.70023","article-title":"Exploring Biomarkers of Neurodegeneration in Epilepsy: Critical Insights","volume":"27","author":"Farhan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12744","article-title":"Assessment of Tau Phosphorylation and \u03b2-Amyloid Pathology in Human Drug-Resistant Epilepsy","volume":"8","author":"Aroor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-021-02279-y","article-title":"In-Frame Deletion in Canine PITRM1 Is Associated with a Severe Early-Onset Epilepsy, Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Neurodegeneration","volume":"140","author":"Sarviaho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2014.1977","article-title":"Expression of \u03b2-Amyloid Precursor Protein in Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"9","author":"Sima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gureviciene, I., Ishchenko, I., Ziyatdinova, S., Jin, N., Lipponen, A., Gurevicius, K., and Tanila, H. (2019). Characterization of Epileptic Spiking Associated With Brain Amyloidosis in APP\/PS1 Mice. Front. Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.01151"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hickman, L.B., Stern, J.M., Silverman, D.H.S., Salamon, N., and Vossel, K. (2023). Clinical, Imaging, and Biomarker Evidence of Amyloid- and Tau-Related Neurodegeneration in Late-Onset Epilepsy of Unknown Etiology. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1241638"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3376","article-title":"Spike Bursts Increase Amyloid-\u03b2 40\/42 Ratio by Inducing a Presenilin-1 Conformational Change","volume":"16","author":"Dolev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awz381","article-title":"Alzheimer-like Amyloid and Tau Alterations Associated with Cognitive Deficit in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"143","author":"Gourmaud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3453","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5215-08.2009","article-title":"Amyloid \u03b2-Induced Neuronal Hyperexcitability Triggers Progressive Epilepsy","volume":"29","author":"Minkeviciene","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02140-9","article-title":"Plasma Amyloid Beta Concentrations in Aged and Cognitively Impaired Pet Dogs","volume":"58","author":"Panek","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsulami, A., Boland, S.W., McGrath, S., MacLean, E.L., Latimer, C.S., Darvas, M., and Moreno, J.A. (2025). Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers in Aged Dogs with Cognitive Decline. BMC Vet. Res., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-025-05027-w"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Packer, R.M.A., McGreevy, P.D., Salvin, H.E., Valenzuela, M.J., Chaplin, C.M., and Volk, H.A. (2018). Cognitive Dysfunction in Naturally Occurring Canine Idiopathic Epilepsy. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192182"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.54.2876","article-title":"Association between Serum Haptoglobin and the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"54","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4886","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13050","article-title":"A Haptoglobin (HP) Structural Variant Alters the Effect of APOE Alleles on Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"19","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3693","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V98.13.3693","article-title":"Structure-Function Analysis of the Antioxidant Properties of Haptoglobin","volume":"98","author":"Lache","year":"2001","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.161.4.748","article-title":"Hypohaptoglobinemia Associated with Familial Epilepsy","volume":"161","author":"Panter","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s10048-004-0192-1","article-title":"Convulsive Disorder and Genetic Polymorphism. Association of Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy with Haptoglobin Polymorphism","volume":"5","author":"Saccucci","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurogenetics"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2003.028001","article-title":"Haptoglobin Phenotypes in Epilepsy","volume":"50","author":"Sadrzadeh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2020.11.001","article-title":"Proteomic Analysis Reveals Plasma Haptoglobin, Interferon-\u03b3, and Interleukin-1\u03b2 as Potential Biomarkers of Pediatric Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"43","author":"Saengow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2009.08.025","article-title":"Haptoglobin Phenotype and Apolipoprotein E Polymorphism: Relationship to Posttraumatic Seizures and Neuropsychological Functioning after Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"16","author":"Anderson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2020.105152","article-title":"Gene Expression in the Epileptic (EL) Mouse Hippocampus","volume":"147","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-015-0896-8","article-title":"Cytokines and Matrix Metalloproteinases in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Acute Transverse Myelitis: An Outcome Analysis","volume":"65","author":"Dixit","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-143186","article-title":"Matrix Metalloproteinases in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Concurrent Cerebral Microbleeds","volume":"48","author":"Duits","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0753-3322(00)80052-9","article-title":"Serum Levels of IL-12 and the Production of IFN-Gamma, IL-2 and IL-4 by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC) in Cancer Patients Treated with Viscum Album Extract","volume":"54","author":"Kovacs","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_193","first-page":"715","article-title":"Changes to N-Linked Oligosaccharide Chains of Human Serum Immunoglobulin G and Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 with Cancer Progression","volume":"28","author":"Kanoh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-014-0786-5","article-title":"Serum and CSF Cytokines and Matrix Metalloproteinases in Spinal Tuberculosis","volume":"64","author":"Patil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2009.02775.x","article-title":"Matrix Metalloproteinases and Their Tissue Inhibitors in Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis","volume":"17","author":"Janik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3672353","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/3672353","article-title":"Interplay between Matrix Metalloproteinase-9, Matrix Metalloproteinase-2, and Interleukins in Multiple Sclerosis Patients","volume":"2016","author":"Trentini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3207","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-019-03180-8","article-title":"MMPs in Learning and Memory and Neuropsychiatric Disorders","volume":"76","author":"Beroun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14750","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-64777-z","article-title":"Towards a Better Understanding of Idiopathic Epilepsy through Metabolic Fingerprinting of Cerebrospinal Fluid in Dogs","volume":"14","author":"Verdoodt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-021-03510-y","article-title":"Metabolomics Provides Novel Insights into Epilepsy Diagnosis and Treatment: A Review","volume":"47","author":"Lai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2373","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.190667","article-title":"Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis","volume":"129","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2021.06.028","article-title":"Brain Concentrations of Glutamate and GABA in Human Epilepsy: A Review","volume":"91","author":"Sarlo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2024.109916","article-title":"Association between Branched-Chain Amino Acids and Epilepsy: A Mendelian Randomized Study","volume":"158","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-016-2336-7","article-title":"Control of Seizures by Ketogenic Diet-Induced Modulation of Metabolic Pathways","volume":"49","author":"Clanton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Yun, F., Sui, J., Liang, W., Shen, D., and Zhang, Q. (2023). HAT- and HDAC-Targeted Protein Acetylation in the Occurrence and Treatment of Epilepsy. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11010088"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2122","DOI":"10.1038\/s41436-021-01246-2","article-title":"Delineating the Molecular and Phenotypic Spectrum of the SETD1B-Related Syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Weerts","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genet. Med."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm3841","article-title":"The Growing Landscape of Lysine Acetylation Links Metabolism and Cell Signalling","volume":"15","author":"Choudhary","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2403309","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202403309","article-title":"Co-Translational Deposition of N6-Acetyl-L-Lysine in Nascent Proteins Contributes to the Acetylome in Mammalian Cells","volume":"12","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1039\/C2MB25105A","article-title":"A Metabonomics Study of Epilepsy in Patients Using Gas Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry","volume":"8","author":"Wei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29119","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-14718-1","article-title":"Metabolic Alterations Associated with Epileptic Seizures Detected by NMR Spectroscopy","volume":"15","author":"Avalos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7469","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-025-04719-6","article-title":"The Metabolic Profile of Plasma During Epileptogenesis in a Rat Model of Lithium\u2013Pilocarpine-Induced Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"62","author":"Antmen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17899","article-title":"Metabolomic Changes in Adults with Status Epilepticus: A Human Case\u2013Control Study","volume":"65","author":"Hanin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-025-02609-0","article-title":"Identification and Enrichment of Potential Pathways in the Buffy Coat of Patients with DRE Using Non-Targeted Metabolomics Integrated with GEO Datasets","volume":"30","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2019.05.006","article-title":"Changes in Tryptophan and Kynurenine Pathway Metabolites in the Blood of Children Treated with Ketogenic Diet for Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"69","author":"Kocki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2006.11.002","article-title":"The Serotonin Signaling System: From Basic Understanding To Drug Development for Functional GI Disorders","volume":"132","author":"Gershon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.60.042307.110802","article-title":"The Expanded Biology of Serotonin","volume":"60","author":"Berger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2019.113145","article-title":"Serotonin and Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy","volume":"325","author":"Petrucci","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e318204a36a","article-title":"Estimating Risk for Developing Epilepsy","volume":"76","author":"Hesdorffer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_218","first-page":"3","article-title":"Overview of the Role of Vitamins and Minerals on the Kynurenine Pathway in Health and Disease","volume":"67","author":"Majewski","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2549","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2011-3911","article-title":"Selenium Status in Adult Cats and Dogs Fed High Levels of Dietary Inorganic and Organic Selenium1","volume":"90","author":"Todd","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Zelst, M., Hesta, M., Gray, K., Staunton, R., Du Laing, G., and Janssens, G.P.J. (2016). Biomarkers of Selenium Status in Dogs. BMC Vet. Res., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-016-0639-2"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2370","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-014-1439-3","article-title":"Association of Serum Trace Elements and Minerals with Genetic Generalized Epilepsy and Idiopathic Intractable Epilepsy","volume":"39","author":"Prasad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2012.09.013","article-title":"Deficiency of Selenium and Zinc as a Causative Factor for Idiopathic Intractable Epilepsy","volume":"104","author":"Seven","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2003.09.025","article-title":"The Comparison of Nail and Serum Trace Elements in Patients with Epilepsy and Healthy Subjects","volume":"28","author":"Ilhan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2003.08.008","article-title":"Assessment of Copper Status in Epileptic Patients Treated with Anticonvulsant Drugs by Measuring the Specific Oxidase Activity of Ceruloplasmin","volume":"56","author":"Hermida","year":"2003","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-018-0258-7","article-title":"Metabolic Profile of Oxidative Stress and Trace Elements in Febrile Seizures among Children","volume":"33","author":"Sadek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Alonso, M., Rivas, I., and Miranda, M. (2025). Trace Mineral Imbalances in Global Health: Challenges, Biomarkers, and the Role of Serum Analysis. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17132241"},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gromadzka, G., Tarnacka, B., Flaga, A., and Adamczyk, A. (2020). Copper Dyshomeostasis in Neurodegenerative Diseases\u2014Therapeutic Implications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21239259"},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S1734-1140(13)70968-X","article-title":"Antioxidant Agents and Physiological Responses in Adult Epileptic Patients Treated with Lamotrigine","volume":"65","author":"Zagrodzki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1706","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/112.9.1706","article-title":"Effect of Dietary or Genetic Copper Deficiency on Brain Catecholamines, Trace Metals and Enzymes in Mice and Rats","volume":"112","author":"Prohaska","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2005.043505","article-title":"Mutation in the ATP7A Gene May Not Be Responsible for Hypocupraemia in Copper Deficiency Myelopathy","volume":"82","author":"Kumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.4082\/kjfm.20.0018","article-title":"Association between Copper\u2013Zinc Ratio in Hair and Neutrophil\u2013Lymphocyte Ratio within the Context of a Normal White Blood Cell Count among Overweight or Obese Korean Individuals: A Pilot Study","volume":"42","author":"Jeong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Korean J. Fam. Med."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-009-9251-1","article-title":"Plasma Copper\/Zinc Ratio: An Inflammatory\/Nutritional Biomarker as Predictor of All-Cause Mortality in Elderly Population","volume":"11","author":"Malavolta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0035-1567854","article-title":"Study of Trace Elements and Role of Zinc Supplementation in Children with Idiopathic Intractable Epilepsy","volume":"5","author":"Elshorbagy","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Epilepsy"},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2020.1816821","article-title":"The Changes of Serum Zinc, Copper, and Selenium Levels in Epileptic Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-022-03258-8","article-title":"The Relationship of Fatigue and Depression with Trace Element Levels in Epileptic Patients","volume":"201","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-013-9616-9","article-title":"Selenium and Topiramate Attenuates Blood Oxidative Toxicity in Patients with Epilepsy: A Clinical Pilot Study","volume":"152","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(91)93130-2","article-title":"Glutathione Peroxidase Deficiency and Childhood Seizures","volume":"337","author":"Weber","year":"1991","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1073025","article-title":"Selenium Deficiency Triggering Intractable Seizures","volume":"25","author":"Ramaekers","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barchielli, G., Capperucci, A., and Tanini, D. (2022). The Role of Selenium in Pathologies: An Updated Review. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11020251"},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zentrichov\u00e1, V., Pechov\u00e1, A., and Kova\u0159\u00edkov\u00e1, S. (2021). Selenium and Dogs: A Systematic Review. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11020418"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schweizer, U., Bohleber, S., Zhao, W., and Fradejas-Villar, N. (2021). The Neurobiology of Selenium: Looking Back and to the Future. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.652099"},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-015-0229-3","article-title":"Protective Effect of Selenium Against Aluminum Chloride-Induced Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Behavioral and Biochemical Alterations in Rats","volume":"165","author":"Lakshmi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2012.04.019","article-title":"Selenium Induces Cholinergic Motor Neuron Degeneration in Caenorhabditis Elegans","volume":"33","author":"Estevez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holton, K.F. (2021). Micronutrients May Be a Unique Weapon Against the Neurotoxic Triad of Excitotoxicity, Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation: A Perspective. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.726457"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00711302","article-title":"Regulatory Properties of Brain Glutamate Decarboxylase","volume":"7","author":"Martin","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2006.01.096","article-title":"Distribution of GABAergic Neurons in the Striatum of Amygdala-Kindled Rats: An Immunohistochemical and in Situ Hybridization Study","volume":"1083","author":"Schirmer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.1060","article-title":"Alterations of Hippocampal GABAergic System Contribute to Development of Spontaneous Recurrent Seizures in the Rat Lithium-pilocarpine Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"11","author":"Marescaux","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2948","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867325666180313105949","article-title":"Homocysteine and Hyperhomocysteinaemia","volume":"26","author":"Zaric","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11154","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA119.008820","article-title":"GluN2A-NMDA Receptor\u2013Mediated Sustained Ca2+ Influx Leads to Homocysteine-Induced Neuronal Cell Death","volume":"294","author":"Deep","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22855","DOI":"10.1002\/jbt.22855","article-title":"Effect of Vitamin B 6 on Brain Damage in Valproic Acid Induced Toxicity","volume":"35","author":"Turkyilmaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1177\/0960327113506233","article-title":"The Effects of Vitamin B6 on Lens Antioxidant System in Valproic Acid-Administered Rats","volume":"33","author":"Tunali","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2004.01.028","article-title":"Vitamin C or Vitamin B6 Supplementation Prevent the Oxidative Stress and Decrease of Prostacyclin Generation in Homocysteinemic Rats","volume":"36","author":"Mahfouz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2003.09.012","article-title":"Effect of Vitamin B666 on Oxygen Radicals, Mitochondrial Membrane Potential, and Lipid Peroxidation in H2O2-Treated U937 Monocytes","volume":"36","author":"Kannan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2016.08.001","article-title":"Inflammation, Vitamin B6 and Related Pathways","volume":"53","author":"Ueland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Daghri, N., Rahman, S., Sabico, S., Yakout, S., Wani, K., Al-Attas, O., Saravanan, P., Tripathi, G., McTernan, P., and Alokail, M. (2016). Association of Vitamin B12 with Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines and Biochemical Markers Related to Cardiometabolic Risk in Saudi Subjects. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8090460"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_256.1","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck, D., Bohn, T., C\u00e1mara, M., Castenmiller, J., De Henauw, S., Jos, \u00c1., Maciuk, A., Mangelsdorf, I., and McNulty, B. (2025). Safety of Synthetic Cannabidiol as a Novel Food Pursuant to Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_256.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2015\/2283. EFSA J., 23, e9708."},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yun, S., Kim, W., Kang, M.S., Kim, T.H., Kim, Y., Ahn, J.O., Choi, J.H., Hwang, I.K., and Chung, J.Y. (2020). Neuropathological Changes in Dorsal Root Ganglia Induced by Pyridoxine in Dogs. BMC Neurosci., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-020-00559-3"},{"key":"ref_258","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albersen, M., Bosma, M., Jans, J.J.M., Hofstede, F.C., Van Hasselt, P.M., De Sain-van Der Velden, M.G.M., Visser, G., and Verhoeven-Duif, N.M. (2015). Vitamin B6 in Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid of Children. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0120972"},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2968","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17076","article-title":"Vitamin B Status and Association with Antiseizure Medication in Pregnant Women with Epilepsy","volume":"62","author":"Husebye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2012.03.002","article-title":"Antiepileptic Drugs and Vitamin B6 Plasma Levels in Adult Patients","volume":"101","author":"Linnebank","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2012.04.132","article-title":"B-Vitamin Deficiency in Patients Treated with Antiepileptic Drugs","volume":"24","author":"Mintzer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-1211(00)00101-7","article-title":"Homocysteine, Folate, Vitamin B-12 and Vitamin B-6 in Patients Receiving Antiepileptic Drug Monotherapy","volume":"40","author":"Tamura","year":"2000","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Xu, J., Zhang, L., Li, F., Zhang, L., Tai, Z., Yang, J., Zhang, H., Tuo, J., and Yu, C. (2023). Research Progress on Correlations between Trace Element Levels and Epilepsy. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2023.1167626"},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawahara, M., Kato-Negishi, M., and Tanaka, K.I. (2023). Dietary Trace Elements and the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092067"},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S67","DOI":"10.1177\/03795721241229503","article-title":"Excess Folic Acid and Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Clinical Implications?","volume":"45","author":"Miller","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_266","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2024.107297","article-title":"The Association of Nutrient Intake with Epilepsy: A Cross-Sectional Study from NHANES, 2013\u20132014","volume":"200","author":"Ran","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2004.02958.x","article-title":"In Vitro1H NMR Spectroscopy Shows an Increase in N-acetylaspartylglutamate and Glutamine Content in the Hippocampus of Amygdaloid-kindled Rats","volume":"92","author":"Shirayama","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/s11306-018-1348-6","article-title":"Organic Washes of Tissue Sections for Comprehensive Analysis of Small Molecule Metabolites by MALDI MS Imaging of Rat Brain Following Status Epilepticus","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_269","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lalwani, A.M., Yilmaz, A., Bisgin, H., Ugur, Z., Akyol, S., and Graham, S.F. (2020). The Biochemical Profile of Post-Mortem Brain from People Who Suffered from Epilepsy Reveals Novel Insights into the Etiopathogenesis of the Disease. Metabolites, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo10060261"},{"key":"ref_270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2016.04.010","article-title":"GLT-1: The Elusive Presynaptic Glutamate Transporter","volume":"98","author":"Rimmele","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_271","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKenna, M.C. (2013). Glutamate Pays Its Own Way in Astrocytes. Front. Endocrinol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2013.00191"},{"key":"ref_272","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4764","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-12-04764.1997","article-title":"Glutamatergic Enteric Neurons","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_273","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, M., Lang, Y., Shu, H., Shao, J., and Cui, L. (2021). Microbiota\u2013Gut\u2013Brain Axis and Epilepsy: A Review on Mechanisms and Potential Therapeutics. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.742449"},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baj, A., Moro, E., Bistoletti, M., Orlandi, V., Crema, F., and Giaroni, C. (2019). Glutamatergic Signaling Along The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20061482"},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.03884.x","article-title":"Brain Functional Changes in Rats Administered with Monosodium l -Glutamate in the Stomach","volume":"1170","author":"Kondoh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_276","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2010.05.014","article-title":"The Canine Cognitive Dysfunction Rating Scale (CCDR): A Data-Driven and Ecologically Relevant Assessment Tool","volume":"188","author":"Salvin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_277","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-022-01219-1","article-title":"The Interaction Between Sleep and Epilepsy","volume":"22","author":"Roliz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_278","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gannon, M., Che, P., Chen, Y., Jiao, K., Roberson, E.D., and Wang, Q. (2015). Noradrenergic Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Front. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2015.00220"},{"key":"ref_279","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6031478","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6031478","article-title":"Noradrenergic Modulation of Cognition in Health and Disease","volume":"2017","author":"Borodovitsyna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neural Plast."},{"key":"ref_280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1321","DOI":"10.1002\/vetr.1321","article-title":"Owner Reported Management of Interictal Anxiety Behaviours in Canine Epilepsy","volume":"190","author":"Hobbs","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_281","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Packer, R.M.A., Hobbs, S.L., and Blackwell, E.J. (2019). Behavioral Interventions as an Adjunctive Treatment for Canine Epilepsy: A Missing Part of the Epilepsy Management Toolkit?. Front. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00003"},{"key":"ref_282","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevNeurobiol.v16.i4.10","article-title":"Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms for the Polarized Sorting of Serotonin Receptors: Relevance for Genesis and Treatment of Psychosis","volume":"16","author":"Roth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_283","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-021-01064-9","article-title":"The Roles of Serotonin in Neuropsychiatric Disorders","volume":"42","author":"Pourhamzeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_284","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.06.001","article-title":"A Review of Treatment Options for Behavioural Manifestations of Clinical Anxiety as a Comorbidity in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy","volume":"238","author":"Watson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1124231","article-title":"Urinary Neurotransmitter Analysis and Canine Behavior Assessment","volume":"10","author":"Schmidt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_286","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2025.101360","article-title":"Glycine Receptors: Structure, Function, and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"103","author":"Mizzi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_287","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2015.08.031","article-title":"Glycine Transporter 1 Is a Target for the Treatment of Epilepsy","volume":"99","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_288","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraser, S.D., and Harvey, R.J. (2025). The Emerging Role of Glycine Receptor A2 Subunit Defects in Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2025.1550863"},{"key":"ref_289","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70061","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.70061","article-title":"Milestone Review: Unlocking the Proteomics of Glycine Receptor Complexes","volume":"169","author":"Fraser","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farris, J., Calhoun, B., Alam, M.S., Lee, S., and Haldar, K. (2020). Large Scale Analyses of Genotype-Phenotype Relationships of Glycine Decarboxylase Mutations and Neurological Disease Severity. PLoS Comput. Biol., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1007871"},{"key":"ref_291","unstructured":"Krawiec, C., and Anastasopoulou, C. (2025). Nonketotic Hyperglycinemia. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_292","first-page":"661","article-title":"Valproate and Myoclonus","volume":"43","author":"Chapman","year":"1986","journal-title":"Adv. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_293","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4395","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2014.277574","article-title":"Serotonin Neurones Have Anti-convulsant Effects and Reduce Seizure-induced Mortality","volume":"592","author":"Buchanan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_294","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2010.02908.x","article-title":"The Serotonin Axis: Shared Mechanisms in Seizures, Depression, and SUDEP","volume":"52","author":"Richerson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1007\/s40272-014-0088-y","article-title":"Management of Treatment-Resistant Depression in Children and Adolescents","volume":"16","author":"DeFilippis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_296","first-page":"18","article-title":"Effects of Reconcile (Fluoxetine) Chewable Tablets plus Behavior Management for Canine Separation Anxiety","volume":"8","author":"Simpson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Ther."},{"key":"ref_297","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X20666220627160048","article-title":"Antidepressant Drugs for Seizures and Epilepsy: Where Do We Stand?","volume":"21","author":"Tallarico","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_298","first-page":"CD010682","article-title":"Antidepressants for People with Epilepsy and Depression","volume":"2021","author":"Maguire","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_299","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2015.10.013","article-title":"Retrospective Multicenter Evaluation of the \u201cFly-Catching Syndrome\u201d in 24 Dogs: EEG, BAER, MRI, CSF Findings and Response to Antiepileptic and Antidepressant Treatment","volume":"53","author":"Wrzosek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_300","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2025.107074","article-title":"Endocannabinoid Signaling in Epilepsy","volume":"215","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_301","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freundt-Revilla, J., Kegler, K., Baumg\u00e4rtner, W., and Tipold, A. (2017). Spatial Distribution of Cannabinoid Receptor Type 1 (CB1) in Normal Canine Central and Peripheral Nervous System. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181064"},{"key":"ref_302","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2915","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-024-10509-7","article-title":"Endocannabinoid System and Phytocannabinoids in the Main Species of Veterinary Interest: A Comparative Review","volume":"48","author":"Chiaradia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_303","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchemneu.2016.02.002","article-title":"Immunohistochemical Distribution of the Cannabinoid Receptor 1 and Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase in the Dog Claustrum","volume":"74","author":"Pirone","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chem. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref_304","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9605","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-13724-x","article-title":"Cell Type Specific Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor Distribution across the Human and Non-Human Primate Cortex","volume":"12","author":"Chou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2660","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2011.01744.x","article-title":"Differential Signalling in Human Cannabinoid CB 1 Receptors and Their Splice Variants in Autaptic Hippocampal Neurones","volume":"165","author":"Straiker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_306","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.111409","article-title":"The Endocannabinoid System in the Brain Undergoes Long-Lasting Changes Following Neuropathic Pain","volume":"27","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_307","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02334.x","article-title":"Cerebrospinal Fluid Levels of the Endocannabinoid Anandamide Are Reduced in Patients with Untreated Newly Diagnosed Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"51","author":"Romigi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_308","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2010.02624.x","article-title":"Dynamic Changes of CB1-Receptor Expression in Hippocampi of Epileptic Mice and Humans","volume":"51","author":"Nagy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_309","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2976","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4465-07.2008","article-title":"Downregulation of the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor and Related Molecular Elements of the Endocannabinoid System in Epileptic Human Hippocampus","volume":"28","author":"Eross","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2025.10.001","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol in Children with Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies: A Systematic Review","volume":"133","author":"Saranti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Seizure Eur. J. Epilepsy"},{"key":"ref_311","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2025.106649","article-title":"Cannabidiol Treatment for Refractory Idiopathic Epilepsy in Dogs: A Systematic Review with Risk of Bias Assessment","volume":"245","author":"Jensen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_312","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2022.105913","article-title":"Cannabidiol in Canine Epilepsy","volume":"290","author":"Potschka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_313","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P5-244","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.86.16_supplement.P5.244","article-title":"Investigating the Involvement of GPR55 Signaling in the Antiepileptic Effects of Cannabidiol (P5.244)","volume":"86","author":"Bazelot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_314","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S10","DOI":"10.1684\/epd.2020.1135","article-title":"The Proposed Mechanisms of Action of CBD in Epilepsy","volume":"22","author":"Gray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord."},{"key":"ref_315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-018-0882-y","article-title":"Cannabis for the Treatment of Epilepsy: An Update","volume":"18","author":"Gaston","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_316","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., and Zhao, J. (2021). MicroRNA Dysregulation in Epilepsy: From Pathogenetic Involvement to Diagnostic Biomarker and Therapeutic Agent Development. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2021.650372"},{"key":"ref_317","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2020.105048","article-title":"Genome-Wide MicroRNA Profiling of Plasma from Three Different Animal Models Identifies Biomarkers of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"144","author":"Brennan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_318","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Benedittis, S., Fortunato, F., Cava, C., Gallivanone, F., Iaccino, E., Caligiuri, M.E., Castiglioni, I., Bertoli, G., Manna, I., and Labate, A. (2021). Circulating MicroRNAs as Potential Novel Diagnostic Biomarkers to Predict Drug Resistance in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: A Pilot Study. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22020702"},{"key":"ref_319","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2020.106373","article-title":"Expression of Circulating MicroRNAs as Predictors of Diagnosis and Surgical Outcome in Patients with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy with Hippocampal Sclerosis","volume":"166","author":"Ioriatti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_320","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14129","article-title":"Circulating MicroRNAs as Potential Biomarkers for Genetic Generalized Epilepsies: A Three MicroRNA Panel","volume":"27","author":"Chaves","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_321","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-019-0821-2","article-title":"Inhibition of MicroRNA-103a Inhibits the Activation of Astrocytes in Hippocampus Tissues and Improves the Pathological Injury of Neurons of Epilepsy Rats by Regulating BDNF","volume":"19","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_322","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16332","article-title":"Proceedings 33rd On-Line Symposium ESVN-ECVN","volume":"36","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_323","unstructured":"(2025). Proceedings 35th Symposium ESVN-ECVN. J. Vet. Intern. Med., 39, e70017."},{"key":"ref_324","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2834","article-title":"Silencing MicroRNA-134 Produces Neuroprotective and Prolonged Seizure-Suppressive Effects","volume":"18","author":"Engel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_325","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2016.09.016","article-title":"Expression of MicroRNA-129-2-3p and MicroRNA-935 in Plasma and Brain Tissue of Human Refractory Epilepsy","volume":"127","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_326","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yakovleva, K.D., Dmitrenko, D.V., Panina, I.S., Usoltseva, A.A., Gazenkampf, K.A., Konovalenko, O.V., Kantimirova, E.A., Novitsky, M.A., Nasyrova, R.F., and Shnayder, N.A. (2022). Expression Profile of MiRs in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: Systematic Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23020951"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/11\/1734\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,31]],"date-time":"2026-05-31T04:14:41Z","timestamp":1780200881000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/11\/1734"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"references-count":327,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18111734"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18111734","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-9048832\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]}}}