{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T05:00:36Z","timestamp":1780722036990,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":290,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review aims to examine the immunological, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antibacterial activities of key whey and milk proteins, specifically lactoferrin, glycomacropeptide, \u03b2-lactoglobulin, \u03b1-lactalbumin and their derived peptides, particularly lactoferricin and lactoferrampin, highlighting their potential as preventive or therapeutic agents. Whey and dairy products represent complex biological matrices that, beyond their high nutritional value, serve as reservoirs of bioactive proteins and peptides with documented health-promoting properties. It has been reported that certain whey proteins (WPs) and whey-derived peptides may contribute to improvements in both innate and adaptive immunity, exert direct antiviral and antibacterial effects while also modulating host defenses through immunoregulatory, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. These mechanisms contribute not only to enhanced resistance against viral pathogens but also to maintaining intestinal homeostasis and microbiota balance, both of which are critical during infection. In recent years, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, natural bioactive compounds derived from whey, and, more broadly, milk, have attracted increasing attention as potential adjuncts or alternatives to conventional antivirals, with reported activity not only against SARS-CoV-2, influenza but also other viral and microbial infections. Despite encouraging in vitro and in vivo evidence, clinical validation remains limited, and the antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of WPs still require deeper mechanistic clarification. Future research should focus on identifying molecular targets, as well as characterizing the pharmacokinetics and safety profiles of WPs and WP peptides across diverse clinical settings. At the same time, attention should be given to optimizing their application as nutraceuticals or functional dairy ingredients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18111770","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T12:19:42Z","timestamp":1780316382000},"page":"1770","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Whey Proteins and Immunity: Mechanisms Underlying Immune System Reinforcement and Protection Against Viral and Bacterial Infections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Lesgards","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, 13397 Marseille, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e714","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.714","article-title":"The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10351","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2079113","article-title":"Bioactive peptides of whey: Obtaining, activity, mechanism of action, and further applications","volume":"63","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13288","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.13288","article-title":"Whey proteins as multifunctional food materials: Recent advancements in hydrolysis, separation, and peptidomimetic approaches","volume":"23","author":"Saadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gombart, A.F., Pierre, A., and Maggini, S. (2020). A review of micronutrients and the immune system\u2013working in harmony to reduce the risk of infection. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12010236"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yahfoufi, N., Alsadi, N., Jambi, M., and Matar, C. (2018). The immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory role of polyphenols. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111618"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1093\/qjmed\/hcac040","article-title":"Does vitamin D supplementation reduce COVID-19 severity?: A systematic review","volume":"115","author":"Shah","year":"2022","journal-title":"QJM Mon. J. Assoc. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19397","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-24053-4","article-title":"Association between vitamin D supplementation and COVID-19 infection and mortality","volume":"12","author":"Gibbons","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3693","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.15495","article-title":"Low plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID-19 infection: An Israeli population-based study","volume":"287","author":"Merzon","year":"2020","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.2119\/2008-00033.Prasad","article-title":"Zinc in human health: Effect of zinc on immune cells","volume":"14","author":"Prasad","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-022-00694-z","article-title":"Zinc supplementation and COVID-19 mortality: A meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Tabatabaeizadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e252223","DOI":"10.1001\/jamahealthforum.2025.2223","article-title":"Global Estimates of Lives and Life-Years Saved by COVID-19 Vaccination During 2020\u20132024","volume":"6","author":"Ioannidis","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Health Forum"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, J., Lang, H.M., Ma, Y., Chen, A.W., Qin, Y.Y., Zhang, X.P., and Huang, C.Q. (2024). Global trends in COVID-19 incidence and case fatality rates (2019\u20132023): A retrospective analysis. Front. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1355097"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lesgards, J.-F., Cerdan, D., and Perronne, C. (2025). Do Long COVID and COVID Vaccine Side Effects Share Pathophysiological Picture and Biochemical Pathways?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26167879"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-022-01149-8","article-title":"The association between dairy products and the risk of COVID-19","volume":"76","author":"Darand","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.7762\/cnr.2023.12.4.283","article-title":"Relationship Between Dairy Intake and Hospitalization Risk and Disease Severity in Patients With COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Yari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2019.09.020","article-title":"Western diet and the immune system: An inflammatory connection","volume":"51","author":"Christ","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-13-61","article-title":"Fast food fever: Reviewing the impacts of the Western diet on immunity","volume":"13","author":"Myles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjnph-2020-000085","article-title":"Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19","volume":"3","author":"Calder","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Nutr. Prev. Health"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520003311","article-title":"Nutritional status, diet and viral respiratory infections: Perspectives for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2","volume":"125","author":"Morais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2021.03.018","article-title":"Influence of foods and nutrients on COVID-19 recovery: A multivariate analysis of data from 170 countries using a generalized linear model","volume":"41","author":"Cobre","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mrityunjaya, M., Pavithra, V., Neelam, R., Janhavi, P., Halami, P.M., and Ravindra, P.V. (2020). Immune-Boosting, Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Food Supplements Targeting Pathogenesis of COVID-19. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.570122"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calder, P.C., Carr, A.C., Gombart, A.F., and Eggersdorfer, M. (2020). Optimal Nutritional Status for a Well-Functioning Immune System Is an Important Factor to Protect against Viral Infections. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041181"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2022.104932","article-title":"Antiviral properties of whey proteins and their activity against SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"89","author":"Gallo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6997","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-015-6818-4","article-title":"Antiviral activities of whey proteins","volume":"99","author":"Ng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1080\/10408690290825574","article-title":"Whey components: Millennia of evolution create functionalities for mammalian nutrition: What we know and what we may be overlooking","volume":"42","author":"Walzem","year":"2002","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lesgards, J.F. (2023). Benefits of Whey Proteins on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Parameters and Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15051294"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Kosikowski, F.V. (1982). Whey and Whey Foods, Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods, Edwards Brothers."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"215","article-title":"Whey Proteins-Properties and Possibility of Application","volume":"55","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mljekarstvo"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"79","article-title":"Electrophoretic characterization of the protein products formed during heat treatment of whey protein concentrate solutions","volume":"65","author":"Havea","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029901004964","article-title":"Characterization of heat-induced aggregates of beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin and bovine serum albumin in a whey protein concentrate environment","volume":"68","author":"Havea","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"233","article-title":"Heat-induced aggregation of \u03b2-lactoglobulin AB at pH 2.5 as influenced by ionic strength and protein concentration","volume":"10","author":"Schokker","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2007.07.005","article-title":"Bovine whey proteins\u2013Overview on their main biological properties","volume":"40","author":"Madureira","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1039\/C5FO01530H","article-title":"Dietary protein intake and human health","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sar, T., Bogovic Matijasic, B., Danilovic, B., Gamero, A., Gand\u00eda, M., Krausova, G., Mart\u00ednez-Villaluenga, C., Pe\u00f1as, E., Bagherzadehsurbagh, E., and Cemali, \u00d6. (2025). A systematic review of health promoting effects of consumption of whey-based fermented products on adults. Front. Nutr., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1651365"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2478\/s11756-012-0014-0","article-title":"Immunoenhancing property of dietary un-denatured whey protein derived from three camel breeds in mice","volume":"67","author":"Ebaid","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biologia"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfp205","article-title":"Gene and protein responses of human monocytes to extracellular cysteine redox potential","volume":"112","author":"Go","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci. An. Off. J. Soc. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1016\/0192-0561(92)90065-S","article-title":"Peptides and their constituent amino acids influence the immune response and phagocytosis in different ways","volume":"14","author":"Belokrylov","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/096374080410001666504","article-title":"Whole blood and mononuclear cell glutathione response to dietary whey protein supplementation in sedentary and trained male human subjects","volume":"55","author":"Middleton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nut."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(01)00480-4","article-title":"Redox environment of the cell as viewed through the redox state of the glutathione disulfide\/glutathione couple","volume":"30","author":"Schafer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.109645","article-title":"A bovine whey protein extract stimulates human neutrophils to generate bioactive IL-1Ra through a NF-kappaB- and MAPK-dependent mechanism","volume":"140","author":"Rusu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665100000847","article-title":"Glutathione and immune function","volume":"59","author":"Droge","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(98)80041-5","article-title":"Immunonutrition: Role of sulfur amino acids, related amino acids, and polyamines","volume":"14","author":"Grimble","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2626","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI88990","article-title":"Glutamine supplementation suppresses herpes simplex virus reactivation","volume":"127","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2006.05.002","article-title":"Natural killer cells as an initial defense against pathogens","volume":"18","author":"Lodoen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1582","article-title":"Functions of natural killer cells","volume":"9","author":"Vivier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"283","article-title":"Nutritional therapy of chronic hepatitis by whey protein (non-heated)","volume":"31","author":"Watanabe","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2014.01.006","article-title":"Metabolism of activated T lymphocytes","volume":"27","author":"Maciolek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"37","article-title":"A role for milk proteins in cancer prevention","volume":"53","author":"Parodi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Aust. J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.108.098459","article-title":"A bovine whey protein extract can enhance innate immunity by priming normal human blood neutrophils","volume":"139","author":"Rusu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1718","DOI":"10.1039\/C6FO01458E","article-title":"Supplementation of fermented Maillard-reactive whey protein enhances immunity by increasing NK cell activity","volume":"8","author":"Kang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2100337","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202100337","article-title":"Potential mechanisms of improved activity of natural killer cells induced by the consumption of F-MRP for 8 weeks","volume":"65","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Nut Food Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S80","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114507838074","article-title":"Bovine whey protein concentrate supplementation modulates maturation of immune system in suckling rats","volume":"98","author":"Castell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiac.2014.08.003","article-title":"Lactoferrin for prevention of common viral infections","volume":"20","author":"Wakabayashi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1177\/17534259221077750","article-title":"Natural killer cell exhaustion in SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"28","year":"2022","journal-title":"Innate Immun."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5035","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2020002650","article-title":"Impaired natural killer cell counts and cytolytic activity in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"4","author":"Osman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0493-9","article-title":"Identification of druggable inhibitory immune checkpoints on Natural Killer cells in COVID-19","volume":"17","author":"Demaria","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e188182","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI188182","article-title":"Long COVID is associated with lower percentages of mature, cytotoxic NK cell phenotypes","volume":"135","author":"Tsao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2023.23.e39","article-title":"COVID-19 Vaccination Alters NK Cell Dynamics and Transiently Reduces HBsAg Titers Among Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B","volume":"23","author":"Shin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ha, D.J., Kim, J., Kim, S., Go, G.-W., and Whang, K.-Y. (2021). Dietary Whey Protein Supplementation Increases Immunoglobulin G Production by Affecting Helper T Cell Populations after Antigen Exposure. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10010194"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029900031058","article-title":"Immunomodulatory effects of dietary whey proteins in mice","volume":"62","author":"Wong","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2003.08.003","article-title":"Immunomodulating effects of whey proteins and their enzymatic digests","volume":"14","author":"Mercier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2011.11.006","article-title":"Modulation of immune cell proliferation and chemotaxis towards CC chemokine ligand (CCL)-21 and CXC chemokine ligand (CXCL)-12 in undenatured whey protein-treated mice","volume":"23","author":"Badr","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"122","article-title":"Human lactoferrin induces phenotypic and functional changes in murine splenic B-cells","volume":"86","author":"Zimecki","year":"1995","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(91)90099-V","article-title":"Immunostimulatory activity of lactotransferrin and maturation of CD4- CD8- murine thymocytes","volume":"30","author":"Zimecki","year":"1991","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2017.4080","article-title":"Whey Protein Supplementation Improves Nutritional Status, Glutathione Levels, and Immune Function in Cancer Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind Controlled Trial","volume":"21","author":"Bumrungpert","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2006.06.014","article-title":"Immunomodulatory Peptides Obtained by the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Whey Proteins","volume":"16","author":"Gauthier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422416000032","article-title":"Bioavailability of milk protein-derived bioactive peptides: A glycaemic management perspective","volume":"29","author":"Horner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/09540100120094519","article-title":"Enhancement of mucosal antibody responses by dietary whey protein concentrate","volume":"13","author":"Low","year":"2001","journal-title":"Food Agri. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/2049-1891-4-27","article-title":"The immune modifying effects of amino acids on gut-associated lymphoid tissue","volume":"4","author":"Ruth","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114517003786","article-title":"Leptin and adiponectin supplementation modifies mesenteric lymph node lymphocyte composition and functionality in suckling rats","volume":"119","author":"Castell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C\u00f3rdova-D\u00e1valos, L.E., Jim\u00e9nez, M., and Salinas, E. (2019). Glycomacropeptide Bioactivity and Health: A Review Highlighting Action Mechanisms and Signaling Pathways. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11030598"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd2223","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abd2223","article-title":"IgA dominates the early neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"13","author":"Sterlin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.57.1214","article-title":"Inhibition by kappa-casein glycomacropeptide and lactoferrin of influenza virus hemagglutination","volume":"57","author":"Kawasaki","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Y., Zhu, C., Ming, Z., Cao, J., Yan, Y., Zhao, P., Pang, G., Deng, Z., Yao, Y., and Chen, Q. (2017). Molecular mechanisms by which casein glycomacropeptide maintains internal homeostasis in mice with experimental ulcerative colitis. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181075"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612033454810","article-title":"Antibacterial and antiviral effects of milk proteins and derivatives thereof","volume":"9","author":"Florisa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.69.2294","article-title":"Prevention of intestinal infection by glycomacropeptide","volume":"69","author":"Nakajima","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(03)00010-X","article-title":"The antiviral activity of naturally occurring proteins and their peptide fragments after chemical modification","volume":"59","author":"Oevermann","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, Y., Li, P., Xu, W., Liu, Z., Wang, C., Wang, Q., Tang, J., Li, W., Lu, L., and Jiang, S. (2022). Chemically Modified Bovine \u03b2-Lactoglobulin as a Broad-Spectrum Influenza Virus Entry Inhibitor with the Potential to Combat Influenza Outbreaks. Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14092055"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2020.173781","article-title":"Investigation of beta-lactoglobulin derived bioactive peptides against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19): In silico analysis","volume":"891","author":"Okuyan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.106118","article-title":"Lactoferrin as potential preventative and adjunct treatment for COVID-19","volume":"56","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosa, L., Tripepi, G., Naldi, E., Aimati, M., Santangeli, S., Venditto, F., Caldarelli, M., and Valenti, P. (2021). Ambulatory COVID-19 Patients Treated with Lactoferrin as a Supplementary Antiviral Agent: A Preliminary Study. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10184276"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"8","article-title":"Liposomal Lactoferrin as Potential Preventative and Cure for COVID-19","volume":"8","author":"Serrano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10593","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-10492-x","article-title":"Lactoferrin-derived Peptides Active towards Influenza: Identification of Three Potent Tetrapeptide Inhibitors","volume":"7","author":"Scala","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11303","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11303","article-title":"Natural resources to control COVID-19: Could lactoferrin amend SARS-CoV-2 infectivity?","volume":"9","author":"Mattar","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2020.9402","article-title":"Lactoferrin for the treatment of COVID-19 (Review)","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-022-00458-6","article-title":"Molecular mimicry of the receptor-binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein: From the interaction of spike-specific antibodies with transferrin and lactoferrin to the antiviral effects of human recombinant lactoferrin","volume":"36","author":"Sokolov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biometals"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campione, E., Lanna, C., Cosio, T., Rosa, L., Conte, M.P., Iacovelli, F., Romeo, A., Falconi, M., Del Vecchio, C., and Franchin, E. (2021). Lactoferrin against SARS-CoV-2: In Vitro and In Silico Evidences. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.666600"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, I., Silva, M., Gr\u00e1cio, M., Pedroso, L., and Lima, A. (2024). Milk Antiviral Proteins and Derived Peptides against Zoonoses. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25031842"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miotto, M., Di Rienzo, L., B\u00f2, L., Boffi, A., Ruocco, G., and Milanetti, E. (2021). Molecular Mechanisms behind Anti SARS-CoV-2 Action of Lactoferrin. Front. Mol. Biosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2021.607443"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1080\/19390211.2020.1834047","article-title":"COVID-19 during Pregnancy and Postpartum","volume":"19","author":"Naidu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Diet. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2021.1888660","article-title":"The in Vitro Antiviral Activity of Lactoferrin against Common Human Coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2 Is Mediated by Targeting the Heparan Sulfate Co-Receptor","volume":"10","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salaris, C., Scarpa, M., Elli, M., Bertolini, A., Guglielmetti, S., Pregliasco, F., Blandizzi, C., Brun, P., and Castagliuolo, I. (2021). Protective Effects of Lactoferrin against SARS-CoV-2 Infection In Vitro. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020328"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1007\/s10930-021-09983-8","article-title":"Milk Peptides as Novel Multi-Targeted Therapeutic Candidates for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"40","author":"Pradeep","year":"2021","journal-title":"Protein J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imoto, I., Yasuma, T., D\u2019Alessandro-Gabazza, C.N., Oka, S., Misaki, M., Horiki, N., and Gabazza, E.C. (2023). Antimicrobial Effects of Lactoferrin against Helicobacter pylori Infection. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12040599"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114500002233","article-title":"Biological activities of bovine glycomacropeptide","volume":"84","author":"Brody","year":"2000","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1051\/rnd:19940602","article-title":"Effects of caseinomacropeptide (CMP) on digestion regulation","volume":"34","author":"Yvon","year":"1994","journal-title":"Reprod. Nutr. Dev."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2006.06.012","article-title":"Health effects and technological features of caseinomacropeptide","volume":"16","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-9084(98)80022-9","article-title":"Casein peptide release and passage to the blood in humans during digestion of milk or yogurt","volume":"80","author":"Chabance","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Isoda, H., Kawasaki, Y., Tanimoto, M., Dosako, S., and Idota, T. (1990). Use of Compounds Containing or Binding Sialic Acid to Neutralize Bacterial Toxins. (EP0385118A2), European Patent."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2006.00268.x","article-title":"The effects of a-lactalbumin and glycomacropeptide on the association of CaCo-2 cells by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Shigella flexneri","volume":"259","author":"Kelleher","year":"2006","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512002978","article-title":"Casein glycomacropeptide in the diet may reduce Escherichia coli attachment to the intestinal mucosa and increase the intestinal lactobacilli of early weaned piglets after an enterotoxigenic E. coli K88 challenge","volume":"109","author":"Molist","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Neeser, J.R. (1991). Dental Anti-Plaque and Anti-Caries Agent. (US4992420A), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345960750101101","article-title":"Incorporation of caseinoglycomacropeptide and caseinophosphopeptide into the salivary pellicle inhibits adherence of mutans streptococci","volume":"75","author":"Neeser","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallegos-Alcal\u00e1, P., Jim\u00e9nez, M., Cervantes-Garc\u00eda, D., C\u00f3rdova-D\u00e1valos, L.E., Gonzalez-Curiel, I., and Salinas, E. (2023). Glycomacropeptide Protects against Inflammation and Oxidative Stress, and Promotes Wound Healing in an Atopic Dermatitis Model of Human Keratinocytes. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12101932"},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"2159","article-title":"Bifidus growth-promoting activity of a glycomacropeptide derived from human K-casein","volume":"48","author":"Azuma","year":"1984","journal-title":"Agric. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2003.09.034","article-title":"Caseinomacropeptide and whey protein concentrate enhance Bifidobacterium lactis growth in milk","volume":"86","author":"Janer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029912000660","article-title":"Growth-promoting effects of caseinomacropeptide from cow and goat milk on probiotics","volume":"80","author":"Robitaille","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.6b05434","article-title":"Glycomacropeptide sustains microbiota diversity and promotes specific taxa in an artificial colon model of elderly gut microbiota","volume":"65","author":"Ntemeri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6730","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2018-14499","article-title":"Bovine glycomacropeptide promotes the growth of Bifidobacterium longum ssp. infantis and modulates its gene expression","volume":"101","author":"Kilcoyne","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01085","article-title":"Regulation of lung immunity and host defense by the intestinal microbiota","volume":"6","author":"Samuelson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2014-308514","article-title":"Does the microbiota play a role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases?","volume":"64","author":"McLean","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400731","article-title":"The gut flora as a forgotten organ","volume":"7","author":"Shanahan","year":"2006","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.5507\/bp.2016.052","article-title":"Nutrition, oxidative stress and intestinal dysbiosis: Influence of diet on gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"160","author":"Tomasello","year":"2016","journal-title":"BioMed Pap. Med. Fac. Univ. Palacky. Olomouc Czech. Repub."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.MBP-0008-2014","article-title":"The Roles of Inflammation, Nutrient Availability and the Commensal Microbiota in Enteric Pathogen Infection","volume":"3","author":"Stecher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01159","article-title":"Fructose: A Dietary Sugar in Crosstalk with Microbiota Contributing to the Development and Progression of Non-Alcoholic Liver Disease","volume":"8","author":"Lambertz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2022.12.009","article-title":"The \u2018Whey\u2019 to Good Health: Whey Protein and Its Beneficial Effect on Metabolism, Gut Microbiota and Mental Health","volume":"133","author":"Boscaini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2025-27204","article-title":"Effects of whey protein isolate on the human gut microbiota and intestinal function in older adults","volume":"109","author":"Rackerby","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3053","DOI":"10.1039\/C7FO00197E","article-title":"In vitro modulation of gut microbiota by whey protein to preserve intestinal health","volume":"8","author":"Planes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.2001.01482.x","article-title":"The regulatory effects of whey retentive from bifidobacteria fermented milk on the microbiota of the simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem (SHIME)","volume":"91","author":"Meddah","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14867","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14867","article-title":"Depletion of the gut microbiota differentially affects the impact of whey protein on high-fat diet-induced obesity and intestinal permeability","volume":"9","author":"Boscaini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb-2023-0051","article-title":"Effects of whey protein supplementation on gut microbiota of Wistar rats with valproic acid-induced autism symptoms","volume":"19","year":"2024","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, S., Bhat, Z.F., Gounder, R.S., Mohamed Ahmed, I.A., Al-Juhaimi, F.Y., Ding, Y., and Bekhit, A.E.A. (2022). Effect of Dietary Protein and Processing on Gut Microbiota-A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14030453"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1799533","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2020.1799533","article-title":"The effects of dairy and dairy derivatives on the gut microbiota: A systematic literature review","volume":"12","author":"Aslam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.136401","article-title":"Recent advances in wolfberry polysaccharides and whey protein-based biopolymers for regulating the diversity of gut microbiota and its mechanism: A review","volume":"281","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallo, V., Arienzo, A., Tomassetti, F., and Antonini, G. (2024). Milk Bioactive Compounds and Gut Microbiota Modulation: The Role of Whey Proteins and Milk Oligosaccharides. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13060907"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-021-00389-4","article-title":"Human gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT); diversity, structure, and function","volume":"14","author":"Fenton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1159\/000479918","article-title":"Bacterial Translocation from the Gut to the Distant Organs: An Overview","volume":"71","author":"Nagpal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.5217\/ir.2015.13.1.11","article-title":"Intestinal permeability regulation by tight junction: Implication on inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intest. Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.2741\/3820","article-title":"Amino acid metabolism in intestinal bacteria: Links between gut ecology and host health","volume":"16","author":"Dai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.2174\/1875044301205010047","article-title":"Role of glutamine in protection of intestinal epithelial tight junctions","volume":"5","author":"Rao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Epithel. Biol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2015.01.012","article-title":"The role of immunomodulators on intestinal barrier homeostasis in experimental models","volume":"34","author":"Andrade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(00)00354-3","article-title":"The gut and amino acid homeostasis","volume":"16","author":"Reeds","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cruzat, V., Macedo Rogero, M., Noel Keane, K., Curi, R., and Newsholme, P. (2018). Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function Supplementation and Clinical Translation. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201809.0459.v1"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-008-0152-4","article-title":"Amino acids and gut function","volume":"37","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2578","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/126.10.2578","article-title":"Dietary glutamine supplementation prevents jejunal atrophy in weaned pigs","volume":"126","author":"Wu","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/138.6.1025","article-title":"Gene expression is altered in piglet small intestine by weaning and dietary glutamine supplementation","volume":"138","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2010.06.044","article-title":"Glutamine treatment attenuates the development of ischaemia\/reperfusion injury of the gut","volume":"643","author":"Mondello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/128.8.1296","article-title":"Glutamine reduces heat shock-induced cell death in rat intestinal epithelial cells","volume":"128","author":"Chow","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837107","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/837107","article-title":"Glutamine supplementation attenuates expressions of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors on T cells in a murine model of acute colitis","volume":"2014","author":"Hou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2001453","article-title":"Glutamine depletion impairs cellular stress response in human leucocytes","volume":"87","author":"Oehler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-011-1947-9","article-title":"Glutamine and whey protein improve intestinal permeability and morphology in patients with Crohn\u2019s disease: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"57","author":"Benjamin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2013.01.014","article-title":"Glutamine and arginine improve permeability and tight junction protein expression in methotrexate-treated Caco-2 cells","volume":"32","author":"Beutheu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3360001","article-title":"Arginine metabolism: Nitric oxide and beyond","volume":"336","author":"Wu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochem J."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2004.07.004","article-title":"Oral arginine reduces gut mucosal injury caused by lipopolysaccharide endotoxemia in rat","volume":"122","author":"Sukhotnik","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/134.3.489","article-title":"Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health","volume":"134","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"G99","article-title":"Absorption and lymphatic transport of peroxidized lipids by rat small intestine in vivo: Role of mucosal GSH","volume":"262","author":"Aw","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/136.6.1660S","article-title":"The effects of sulfur amino acids intake on immune function in humans","volume":"136","author":"Grimble","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bischoff, S.C., Barbara, G., Buurman, W., Ockhuizen, T., Schulzke, J.D., and Serino, M. (2014). Intestinal permeability\u2014A new target for disease prevention and therapy. BMC Gastroenterol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-014-0189-7"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2014.995264","article-title":"A role for whey-derived lactoferrin and immunoglobulins in the attenuation of obesity-related inflammation and disease","volume":"57","author":"Brimelow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1934","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.113.182931","article-title":"Whey protein processing influences formula-induced gut maturation in preterm pigs","volume":"143","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1801","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513004315","article-title":"Bovine lactoferrin ingestion protects against inflammation via IL-11 induction in the small intestine of mice with hepatitis","volume":"111","author":"Kuhara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_152","first-page":"296","article-title":"The biological activity of undenatured dietary whey proteins: Role of glutathione","volume":"14","author":"Bounous","year":"1991","journal-title":"Clin. Invest Med."},{"key":"ref_153","first-page":"213","article-title":"Dietary whey protein inhibits the development of dimethylhydrazine induced malignancy","volume":"11","author":"Bounous","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2009.08.025","article-title":"N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) inhibits virus replication and expression of pro-inflammatory molecules in A549 cells infected with highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza A virus","volume":"79","author":"Geiler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2009.04.052","article-title":"Practical strategies for targeting NF-kappaB and NADPH oxidase may improve survival during lethal influenza epidemics","volume":"74","author":"McCarty","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.97.10071535","article-title":"Attenuation of influenza-like symptomatology and improvement of cell-mediated immunity with long-term N-acetylcysteine treatment","volume":"10","author":"Grassi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mata, M., Sarrion, I., Armengot, M., Carda, C., Martinez, I., Melero, J.A., and Cortijo, J. (2012). Respiratory syncytial virus inhibits ciliagenesis in differentiated normal human bronchial epithelial cells: Effectiveness of N-acetylcysteine. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048037"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.02-0508fje","article-title":"Influenza A virus replication is dependent on an antioxidant pathway that involves GSH and Bcl-2","volume":"17","author":"Nencioni","year":"2003","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(03)00023-6","article-title":"Inhibition of influenza infection by glutathione","volume":"34","author":"Cai","year":"2003","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khomich, O.A., Kochetkov, S.N., Bartosch, B., and Ivanov, A.V. (2018). Redox Biology of Respiratory Viral Infections. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10080392"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/039463200401700114","article-title":"Synergistic combination of N-acetylcysteine and ribavirin to protect from lethal influenza viral infection in a mouse model","volume":"17","author":"Ghezzi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2020.155151","article-title":"COVID-19 cytokine storm: The anger of inflammation","volume":"133","author":"Mahmudpour","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manful, C.F., Fordjour, E., Ikumoinein, E., Abbey, L., and Thomas, R. (2025). Therapeutic Strategies Targeting Oxidative Stress and Inflammation: A Narrative Review. BioChem., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/biochem5040035"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110102","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection pathogenesis is related to oxidative stress as a response to aggression","volume":"143","author":"Cecchini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2020.04.019","article-title":"Oxidative Stress as Key Player in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) Infection","volume":"51","author":"Mesta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ducastel, M., Chenevier-Gobeaux, C., Ballaa, Y., Meritet, J.F., Brack, M., Chapuis, N., Pene, F., Carlier, N., Szwebel, T.A., and Roche, N. (2021). Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Biomarkers for the Prediction of Severity and ICU Admission in Unselected Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147462"},{"key":"ref_167","first-page":"12","article-title":"COVID-19 infection and oxidative stress: An under-explored approach for prevention and treatment?","volume":"35","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pan Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarcella, M., Scarpellini, E., Ascani, A., Commissari, R., Scorcella, C., Zanetti, M., Parisi, A., Monti, R., Milic, N., and Donati, A. (2022). Effect of Whey Proteins on Malnutrition and Extubating Time of Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14030437"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2022.03.002","article-title":"Nutritional support protocol for patients with COVID-19","volume":"49","author":"Hinkelmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S1569-1993(03)00097-3","article-title":"Improved glutathione status in young adult patients with cystic fibrosis supplemented with whey protein","volume":"2","author":"Grey","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L69","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.2001.281.1.L69","article-title":"Dysregulated NF-kappaB activation in cystic fibrosis: Evidence for a primary inflammatory disorder","volume":"281","author":"Blackwell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2016.02.050","article-title":"Intradialytic Oral protein supplementation and nutritional and inflammation outcomes in hemodialysis: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"68","author":"Sohrabi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114522001787","article-title":"Effects of whey and soy protein supplementation on inflammatory cytokines in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"129","author":"Prokopidis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.109911","article-title":"Fighting against frailty and sarcopenia-As well as COVID-19?","volume":"144","author":"Ekiz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2006761","article-title":"Covid-19 and Immunity in Aging Populations-A New Research Agenda","volume":"383","author":"Koff","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-020-00272-3","article-title":"Sarcopenia during COVID-19 lockdown restrictions: Long-term health effects of short-term muscle loss","volume":"42","author":"Kirwan","year":"2020","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2025.114056","article-title":"The role of chronic low-grade inflammation in the development of sarcopenia: Advances in molecular mechanisms","volume":"147","author":"Cheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01451-2","article-title":"Immunosenescence: Molecular mechanisms and diseases","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target Ther."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2006.12.013","article-title":"Increased availability of leucine with leucine-rich whey proteins improves postprandial muscle protein synthesis in aging rats","volume":"23","author":"Rieu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuentes-Barr\u00eda, H., Aguilera-Egu\u00eda, R., Angarita-Davila, L., Rojas-G\u00f3mez, D., Alarc\u00f3n-Rivera, M., L\u00f3pez-Soto, O., Maureira-S\u00e1nchez, J., Berm\u00fadez, V., Rivera-Porras, D., and Contreras-Vel\u00e1zquez, J.C. (2025). Vitamin D and Sarcopenia: Implications for Muscle Health. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13081863"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamda.2016.06.016","article-title":"Exercise and Nutritional Supplementation on Community-Dwelling Elderly Japanese Women With Sarcopenic Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"17","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-022-00902-0","article-title":"Redox regulation of the immune response","volume":"19","author":"Morris","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.15171\/apb.2020.018","article-title":"Effect of Whey Protein Supplementation on Inflammatory and Antioxidant Markers, and Clinical Prognosis in Acute Ischemic Stroke (TNS Trial): A Randomized, Double Blind, Controlled, Clinical Trial","volume":"10","author":"Hashemilar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70286","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.70286","article-title":"Whey Protein Mitigates Oxidative Stress Injury and Improves Protein Synthesis in Mouse Skeletal Muscle by Regulating the SIRT1\/Nrf2\/HO-1 Axis and AMPK\/TSC2\/mTOR\/4EBP1 Pathway","volume":"90","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foisy-Sauv\u00e9, M., Ahmarani, L., Delvin, E., San\u00e9, A.T., Spahis, S., and Levy, E. (2020). Glycomacropeptide Prevents Iron\/Ascorbate-Induced Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Insulin Sensitivity with an Impact on Lipoprotein Production in Intestinal Caco-2\/15 Cells. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041175"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/135.5.1164","article-title":"Bovine glycomacropeptide is anti-inflammatory in rats with hapten-induced colitis","volume":"135","author":"Daddaoua","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1038\/bjp.2008.138","article-title":"Bovine glycomacropeptide ameliorates experimental rat ileitis by mechanisms involving downregulation of interleukin 17","volume":"154","author":"Requena","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7673","DOI":"10.1021\/jf050398o","article-title":"Sialic acid-containing milk proteins show differential immunomodulatory activities independent of sialic acid","volume":"53","author":"Mikkelsen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2704","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0355102","article-title":"Immunoenhancing effects of bovine glycomacropeptide and its derivatives on the proliferative response and phagocytic activities of human macrophagelike cells, U937","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.60.1017","article-title":"Suppression of interleukin-2 receptor expression on mouse CD4+ T cells by bovine \u03ba-caseinoglycopeptide","volume":"60","author":"Otani","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Q., Zhan, B., Chang, R., Du, M., and Mao, X. (2020). Antidiabetic Effect of Casein Glycomacropeptide Hydrolysates on High-Fat Diet and STZ-Induced Diabetic Mice via Regulating Insulin Signaling in Skeletal Muscle and Modulating Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12010220"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-018-1763-5","article-title":"Postprandial metabolic responses to ingestion of bovine glycomacropeptide compared to a whey protein isolate in prediabetic volunteers","volume":"58","author":"Hoefle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_193","unstructured":"Zhang, Y.P., and Gaffar, A. (2001). Fluoride Free Dental Remineralization. (US6207138B1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/77.5.1261","article-title":"Glycomacropeptide and alpha-lactalbumin supplementation of infant formula affects growth and nutritional status in infant rhesus monkeys","volume":"77","author":"Kelleher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wessels, I., Maywald, M., and Rink, L. (2017). Zinc as a Gatekeeper of Immune Function. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9121286"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solverson, P., Murali, S.G., Litscher, S.J., Blank, R.D., and Ney, D.M. (2012). Low bone strength is a manifestation of phenylketonuria in mice and is attenuated by a glycomacropeptide diet. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0045165"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2014.12.005","article-title":"Administration of caseinomacropeptide-enriched extract to mice enhances the calcium content of femur in a low-calcium diet","volume":"44","author":"Burns","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.66.149","article-title":"Oral administration of lactoferrin inhibits inflammation and nociception in rat adjuvant-induced arthritis","volume":"66","author":"Hayashida","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1002\/1529-0131(200009)43:9<2073::AID-ANR19>3.0.CO;2-U","article-title":"The effects of local administration of lactoferrin on inflammation in murine autoimmune and infectious arthritis","volume":"43","author":"Guillen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dyachenko, E.I., and Bel\u2019skaya, L.V. (2024). The Role of Amino Acids in Non-Enzymatic Antioxidant Mechanisms in Cancer: A Review. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14010028"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, Y., Yang, X., Wang, L., Gao, K., and Jiang, Z. (2019). L-Arginine Inhibited Inflammatory Response and Oxidative Stress Induced by Lipopolysaccharide via Arginase-1 Signaling in IPEC-J2 Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20071800"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2025.177615","article-title":"L-Arginine and immune modulation: A pharmacological perspective on inflammation and autoimmune disorders","volume":"997","author":"Dimeji","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_203","first-page":"71","article-title":"Effects of lysine-arginine association on immune functions in patients with recurrent infections","volume":"21","author":"Carulli","year":"1995","journal-title":"Drugs Exp. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.5114\/aoms.2010.17091","article-title":"The use of whey protein concentrate in management of chronic hepatitis C virus-a pilot study","volume":"6","author":"Elattar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci. AMS"},{"key":"ref_205","first-page":"367","article-title":"Lactoferrin inhibits hepatitis C virus viremia in patients with chronic hepatitis C: A pilot study","volume":"90","author":"Tanaka","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cancer Sci."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/jmr.300080504","article-title":"Blocking of CD4 cell receptors for the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) by chemically modified bovine milk proteins: Potential for AIDS prophylaxis","volume":"8","author":"Neurath","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Mol. Recognit."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.1997.13.1101","article-title":"Structural and functional analysis of negatively charged milk proteins with anti-HIV activity","volume":"13","author":"Berkhout","year":"1997","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2362.2001.00781.x","article-title":"Oral supplementation with whey proteins increases plasma glutathione levels of HIV-infected patients","volume":"31","author":"Micke","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.46018-0","article-title":"Effects of orally administered bovine lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase on influenza virus infection in mice","volume":"54","author":"Shin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029910000592","article-title":"Influenza virus A subtype H1N1 is inhibited by methylated \u03b2-lactoglobulin","volume":"77","author":"Sitohy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1179\/2047773212Y.0000000004","article-title":"Bovine lactoferrin-derived peptides as novel broad-spectrum inhibitors of influenza virus","volume":"106","author":"Ammendolia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pathog. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1139\/o11-072","article-title":"Bovine lactoferrin: Involvement of metal saturation and carbohydrates in the inhibition of influenza virus infection","volume":"90","author":"Pietrantoni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199904020-01056","article-title":"Lactoferrin Reverses Respiratory Abnormalities in Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection of Mice","volume":"45","author":"Welliver","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2688","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.8.2688-2691.2003","article-title":"Bovine lactoferrin inhibits adenovirus infection by interacting with viral structural polypeptides","volume":"47","author":"Pietrantoni","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(01)00197-8","article-title":"Antiadenovirus activity of milk proteins: Lactoferrin prevents viral infection","volume":"53","author":"Arnold","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_216","first-page":"255","article-title":"Anticytomegaloviral activity of esterified milk proteins and L-polylysines","volume":"13","author":"Chobert","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00211-5","article-title":"Synergy of bovine lactoferrin with the anti-cytomegalovirus drug cidofovir in vitro","volume":"58","author":"Bakker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00214-0","article-title":"Lactoferrin and lactoferricin inhibit Herpes simplex 1 and 2 infection and exhibit synergy when combined with acyclovir","volume":"58","author":"Andersen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3002","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-005-5228-7","article-title":"Anti herpes simplex virus activity of lactoferrin\/lactoferricin\u2014An example of antiviral activity of antimicrobial protein\/peptide","volume":"62","author":"Jenssen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2013.03.003","article-title":"Chemically modified bovine beta-lactoglobulin inhibits human papillomavirus infection","volume":"15","author":"Lu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hua, C., Zhu, Y., Wu, C., Si, L., Wang, Q., Sui, L., and Jiang, S. (2019). The Underlying Mechanism of 3-Hydroxyphthalic Anhydride-Modified Bovine Beta-Lactoglobulin to Block Human Papillomavirus Entry Into the Host Cell. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02188"},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2007.12.013","article-title":"Recombinant porcine lactoferrin expressed in the milk of transgenic mice protectsneonatal mice from a lethal challenge with enterovirus type 71","volume":"26","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wr\u00f3bel, M., Ma\u0142aczewska, J., and Kaczorek-\u0141ukowska, E. (2022). Antiviral Effect of Bovine Lactoferrin against Enterovirus E. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27175569"},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1007\/s007050070077","article-title":"In vitro antiviral activity of lactoferrin and ribavirin upon hantavirus","volume":"145","author":"Murphy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.63.637","article-title":"Characterization of in vitro and in vivo antiviral activity of lactoferrin and ribavirin upon hantavirus","volume":"63","author":"Murphy","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4838(98)00224-6","article-title":"Direct evidence of the generation in human stomach of an antimicrobial peptide domain (lactoferricin) from ingested lactoferrin","volume":"1429","author":"Kuwata","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390230","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/390230","article-title":"Antimicrobial lactoferrin peptides: The hidden players in the protective function of a multifunctional protein","volume":"2013","author":"Sinha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Pept."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruden, \u0160., and Poklar Ulrih, N. (2021). Diverse Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activities of Lactoferrins, Lactoferricins, and Other Lactoferrin-Derived Peptides. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222011264"},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2005.02.011","article-title":"Ultrastructural effects of antimicrobial peptides from bovine lactoferrin on the membranes of Candida albicans and Escherichia coli","volume":"26","author":"Nazmi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2007.04.018","article-title":"Solution structures and model membrane interactions of lactoferrampin, an antimicrobial peptide derived from bovine lactoferrin","volume":"1768","author":"Haney","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4165(98)00165-2","article-title":"Isolation and identification of three bactericidal domains in the bovine \u03b1-lactalbumin molecule","volume":"1426","author":"Pellegrini","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4165(01)00116-7","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of four bactericidal domains in the bovine \u03b2-lactoglobulin","volume":"1526","author":"Pellegrini","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-4838(92)90346-F","article-title":"Identification of the bactericidal domain of lactoferrin","volume":"1121","author":"Bellamy","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2012.09.010","article-title":"Structure and orientation of bovine lactoferrampin in the mimetic bacterial membrane as revealed by solid-state NMR and molecular dynamics simulation","volume":"103","author":"Tsutsumi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.61.2.719-728.1993","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of lactoferrin and a pepsin-derived lactoferrin peptide fragment","volume":"61","author":"Yamauchi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2004.tb09482.x","article-title":"Interactions of lactoferricin-derived peptides with LPS and antimicrobial activity","volume":"233","author":"Farnaud","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(99)01545-8","article-title":"Permeabilizing action of an antimicrobial lactoferricin-derived peptide on bacterial and artificial membranes","volume":"462","author":"Aguilera","year":"1999","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_238","first-page":"377","article-title":"Lactoferricin B inhibits bacterial macromolecular synthesis in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis","volume":"237","author":"Ulvatne","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(01)00146-2","article-title":"Lactoferrin and cyclic lactoferricin inhibit the entry of human cytomegalovirus into human fibroblasts","volume":"51","author":"Andersen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Superti, F., Agamennone, M., Pietrantoni, A., and Ammendolia, M.G. (2019). Bovine Lactoferrin Prevents Influenza A Virus Infection by Interfering with the Fusogenic Function of Viral Hemagglutinin. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11010051"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2628","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.62.6.2628-2632.1994","article-title":"Lactoferrin is a lipid A-binding protein","volume":"62","author":"Appelmelk","year":"1994","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199608000-00011","article-title":"Lactoferrin or a fragment thereof inhibits the endotoxin-induced interleukin-6 response in human monocytic cells","volume":"40","author":"Roseanu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.3.1353-1358.1999","article-title":"Neutralization of endotoxin in vitro and in vivo by a human lactoferrin-derived peptide","volume":"67","author":"Zhang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16955","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M500266200","article-title":"Structural origin of endotoxin neutralization and antimicrobial activity of a lactoferrin-based peptide","volume":"280","author":"Japelj","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.63.187","article-title":"Reduction of the infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii and Eimeria stiedai sporozoites by treatment with bovine lactoferricin","volume":"63","author":"Omata","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2024.102082","article-title":"Human milk whey proteins: Constituents, influencing factors, detection methods, and comparative analysis with other sources","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2012.10.002","article-title":"Human milk composition: Nutrients and bioactive factors","volume":"60","author":"Ballard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14930","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.26.14930","article-title":"Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion","volume":"94","author":"Boirie","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_249","first-page":"118","article-title":"Protein-Which is Best?","volume":"3","author":"Hoffman","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A8","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.12802","article-title":"Supplemental protein in support of muscle mass and health: Advantage whey","volume":"80","author":"Devries","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.5851\/kosfa.2024.e12","article-title":"Potential Prebiotic Properties of Whey Protein and Glycomacropeptide in Gut Microbiome","volume":"44","author":"Rackerby","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Anim. Resour."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-022-00436-y","article-title":"Lactoferrin and its digestive peptides induce interferon-\u03b1 production and activate plasmacytoid dendritic cells ex vivo","volume":"36","author":"Kubo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biometals"},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palacios-Rosas, E., Palacios, A., Cuautle, M., Abdulaziz-Almughanam, T., P\u00e9rez-Urquieta, Z.P., L\u00f3pez-L\u00f3pez, E.A., and Garc\u00eda-Montejano, A.S. (2025). COVID-19 and Lactoferrin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. COVID, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/covid5100176"},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Einerhand, A.W.C., van Loo-Bouwman, C.A., Weiss, G.A., Wang, C., Ba, G., Fan, Q., He, B., and Smit, G. (2022). Can Lactoferrin, a Natural Mammalian Milk Protein, Assist in the Battle against COVID-19?. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14245274"},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20160474","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: From molecules to man","volume":"45","author":"Calder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1024\/0300-9831.75.1.11","article-title":"Assessment of antioxidative activity of lipid- and water-soluble vitamins in human whole blood. Comparative analysis between a biological test and chemical methods","volume":"75","author":"Lesgards","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.02110479","article-title":"Assessment of lifestyle effects on the overall antioxidant capacity of healthy subjects","volume":"110","author":"Lesgards","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_258","first-page":"S128","article-title":"Direct and indirect antioxidant properties of inducers of cytoprotective proteins","volume":"52","author":"Talalay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkae385","article-title":"Comment on: Antiviral effect of Evusheld in COVID-19 hospitalized patients infected with pre-Omicron or Omicron variants: A modelling analysis of the randomized DisCoVeRy trial","volume":"80","author":"Lacout","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665116000264","article-title":"Can milk proteins be a useful tool in the management of cardiometabolic health? An updated review of human intervention trials","volume":"75","author":"Fekete","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2009.397","article-title":"The chronic effects of whey proteins on blood pressure, vascular function, and inflammatory markers in overweight individuals","volume":"18","author":"Pal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R380","DOI":"10.1186\/ar1499","article-title":"Potential involvement of oxidative stress in cartilage senescence and development of osteoarthritis: Oxidative stress induces chondrocyte telomere instability and downregulation of chondrocyte function","volume":"7","author":"Yudoh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-10-2","article-title":"Supplemental treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with natural milk antibodies against enteromicrobes and their toxins: Results of an open-labelled pilot study","volume":"10","author":"Katayama","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1940","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.230912","article-title":"Inflammaging and Skeletal Muscle: Can Protein Intake Make a Difference?","volume":"146","author":"Draganidis","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-015-0758-3","article-title":"Preserved skeletal muscle protein anabolic response to acute exercise and protein intake in well-treated rheumatoid arthritis patients","volume":"17","author":"Mikkelsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_266","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2014.967385","article-title":"Dairy products and inflammation: A review of the clinical evidence","volume":"57","author":"Bordoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S239","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmy072","article-title":"Milk and Dairy Product Consumption and Inflammatory Biomarkers: An Updated Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials","volume":"10","author":"Ulven","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2020.1800532","article-title":"The effects of dairy product and dairy protein intake on inflammation: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"40","author":"Nieman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_269","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2015.06.005","article-title":"Milk derived bioactive peptides and their impact on human health\u2014A review","volume":"23","author":"Mohanty","year":"2016","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.010090","article-title":"Human Milk Components Modulate Toll-Like Receptor-Mediated Inflammation","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_271","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2024.114433","article-title":"Digestion of whey peptide induces antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactivity on glial cells: Sequences identification and structural activity analysis","volume":"188","author":"Galland","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_272","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/125.4.809","article-title":"Dietary proteins protect against dimethylhydrazine-induced intestinal cancers in rats","volume":"125","author":"McIntosh","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_273","first-page":"555","article-title":"Dietary whey protein protects against azoxymethane-induced colon tumors in male rats","volume":"10","author":"Hakkak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1007\/s12253-012-9509-9","article-title":"Whey protein versus whey protein hydrolyzate for the protection of azoxymethane and dextran sodium sulfate induced colonic tumors in rats","volume":"18","author":"Attaallah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pathol. Oncol. Res."},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2019.04.019","article-title":"Whey protein in cancer therapy: A narrative review","volume":"144","author":"Teixeira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_276","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1211\/0022357001777595","article-title":"Recombinant human lactoferrin is effective in the treatment of Helicobacter felis-infected mice","volume":"52","author":"Dial","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_277","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2022.111823","article-title":"Immune system and sarcopenia: Presented relationship and future perspective","volume":"164","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_278","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-024-04808-7","article-title":"Association between the systemic immune-inflammation index and sarcopenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Xie","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_279","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-016-2355-4","article-title":"Dietary protein supplementation in the elderly for limiting muscle mass loss","volume":"49","author":"Lancha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/85.5.1286","article-title":"Postprandial whole-body protein metabolism after a meat meal is influenced by chewing efficiency in elderly subjects","volume":"85","author":"Machebeuf","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_281","unstructured":"U.S. Departments of Agriculture (USDA), and Health and Human Services (HHS) (2026, January 07). Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2025\u20132030, Available online: https:\/\/DietaryGuidelines.gov."},{"key":"ref_282","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1021\/jf000708x","article-title":"Production process for high-quality pea-protein isolate with low content of oligosaccharides and phytate","volume":"49","author":"Fredrikson","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_283","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2973S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/133.9.2973S","article-title":"Influence of vegetable protein sources on trace element and mineral bioavailability","volume":"133","author":"Hurrell","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_284","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pei, Y., Deng, Z., and Li, B. (2024). Regulation on Aggregation Behavior and In Vitro Digestibility of Phytic Acid\u2013Whey Protein Isolate Complexes: Effects of Heating, pH and Phytic Acid Levels. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13213491"},{"key":"ref_285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.05.005","article-title":"Antinutritional properties of plant lectins","volume":"44","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon Off. J. Int. Soc. Toxinology"},{"key":"ref_286","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2002725","article-title":"The biological action of saponins in animal systems: A review","volume":"88","author":"Francis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_287","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2017.11.032","article-title":"The gastrointestinal behavior of saponins and its significance for their bioavailability and bioactivities","volume":"40","author":"Herrera","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_288","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1080\/10408699891274273","article-title":"Tannins and human health: A review","volume":"38","author":"Chung","year":"1998","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_289","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.7.1913","article-title":"Legume grain enhances ileal losses of specific endogenous serine-protease proteins in weaned pigs","volume":"132","author":"Salgado","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, A.W., and Davison, G. (2019). Exercise, Immunity, and Illness. Muscle Exerc. Physiol., 317\u2013344.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-814593-7.00015-3"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/11\/1770\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T04:16:19Z","timestamp":1780719379000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/11\/1770"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"references-count":290,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18111770"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18111770","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]}}}