{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T06:52:10Z","timestamp":1781765530307,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Caffeinated chewing gum is a practical, rapidly absorbed ergogenic aid increasingly used in team sports, yet its interaction with different small-sided soccer game (SSG) formats in young male players remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of acute caffeinated (CAF) chewing gum on psychophysiological responses and kinematic profiles during intermittent (INT) and continuous (CON) 3-a-side SSGs. Methods: Twenty-four young male soccer players (18.4 \u00b1 0.5 years) completed four 3-a-side SSG sessions separated by 48 h in a randomized, double-blind, placebo (PLA)-controlled, crossover design (CAF-INT, PLA-INT, CAF-CON, PLA-CON). Participants chewed 300 mg of CAF or PLA gum for 5 min, with mastication completed 5 min before warm-up session. The heart rates and kinematic profiles were recorded during the SSGs, and the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), exercise enjoyment scale (EES), and visual analogue scale (VAS) to perceived mental fatigue (MF) were assessed post-game. Results: Compared with the PLA, the CAF increased the heart rate responses (HR), EES, total distance (TD), player load (PL), acceleration (ACC), and distances covered in selected speed zones (from Z0 to Z5), while reducing the RPE and MF. Significant format \u00d7 supplementation interactions indicated that CAF-induced changes in high-intensity kinematic outcomes (TD, PL, ACC, Z2\u2013Z5) and HR responses (HRmean, HRmax) were generally greater in INT, whereas CAF-induced increases in low-intensity running distances (Z0 and Z1) and %HRmax were more pronounced in the CON format (all p &lt; 0.05 for the reported effects; \u03b7p2 = 0.16\u20130.93 for CAF main effects [large effects]). The EES improvements were more pronounced in the CON format, whereas the MF and RPE reductions were more pronounced in the INT format. Conclusions: CAF chewing gum may be a practical acute strategy for modulating psychophysiological responses and kinematic profiles during SSGs, with the effects depending partly on the game format.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18121962","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T05:52:37Z","timestamp":1781761957000},"page":"1962","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Caffeinated Chewing Gum on Psychophysiological Responses and Kinematic Profiles During Intermittent and Continuous Small-Sided Soccer Games in Young Male Players: A Randomized Crossover Trial"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9061-0691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bulent","family":"Kilit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sport Sciences, Tokat Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat 60250, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2933-6937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ersan","family":"Arslan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sport Sciences, Tokat Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat 60250, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0609-0601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yusuf","family":"Soylu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sport Sciences, Tokat Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat 60250, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaves Oliveira, C., Ferreira, D., Caetano, C., Granja, D., Pinto, R., Mendes, B., and Sousa, M. (2017). Nutrition and Supplementation in Soccer. Sports, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports5020028"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2020.1851901","article-title":"The association between perceptual-cognitive processes and response time in decision making in young soccer players","volume":"39","author":"Cardoso","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2134","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e318279423e","article-title":"Analysis of sprinting activities of professional soccer players","volume":"27","author":"Andrzejewski","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"63","article-title":"Physical demands of different positions in FA Premier League soccer","volume":"6","author":"Bloomfield","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2018.1535821","article-title":"A systematic review on small-sided games in football players: Acute and chronic adaptations","volume":"37","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.2478\/v10078-012-0009-5","article-title":"A comparison of physiological responses to various intermittent and continuous small-sided games in young soccer players","volume":"31","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hum. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e31825d99dc","article-title":"Influence of different training regimes on physical and physiological demands during small-sided soccer games: Continuous vs. intermittent format","volume":"27","author":"Casamichana","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soylu, Y., Chmura, P., Arslan, E., and Kilit, B. (2024). The effects of carbohydrate mouth rinse on psychophysiological responses and kinematic profiles in intermittent and continuous small-sided games in adolescent soccer players: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, and crossover trial. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16223910"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzo Calvo, J., Fei, X., Dom\u00ednguez, R., and Pareja-Galeano, H. (2021). Caffeine and cognitive functions in sports: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030868"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-020-00383-4","article-title":"International society of sports nutrition position stand: Caffeine and exercise performance","volume":"18","author":"Guest","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1055\/a-2709-6847","article-title":"Caffeine supplementation for soccer: A review of strengths, limitations and knowledge gaps","volume":"47","author":"Tallis","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, C.C., Hsieh, M.H., Ho, C.C., Chang, Y.H., and Shiu, Y.J. (2024). Effects of caffeinated chewing gum on exercise performance and physiological responses: A systematic review. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16213611"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2236060","DOI":"10.1080\/15502783.2023.2236060","article-title":"Effects of dietary supplements on athletic performance in elite soccer players: A systematic review","volume":"20","author":"Abreu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mielgo-Ayuso, J., Calleja-Gonzalez, J., Del Coso, J., Urdampilleta, A., Le\u00f3n-Guere\u00f1o, P., and Fern\u00e1ndez-L\u00e1zaro, D. (2019). Caffeine supplementation and physical performance, muscle damage and perception of fatigue in soccer players: A systematic review. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11020440"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.5114\/biolsport.2021.101125","article-title":"The prevalence and practices of caffeine use as an ergogenic aid in English professional soccer","volume":"38","author":"Tallis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2024.2402137","article-title":"Nutritional habits of professional team sport athletes: An insight into the carbohydrate, fluid, and caffeine habits of English Premier League football players during match play","volume":"42","author":"Kasper","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2000.89.5.1719","article-title":"Caffeine potentiates low frequency skeletal muscle force in habitual and nonhabitual caffeine consumers","volume":"89","author":"Tarnopolsky","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bongiovanni, T., Genovesi, F., Carling, C., Greco, G., and J\u00e4ger, R. (2025). From Science to Dressing Room: Dietary Supplements for Elite Soccer Performance. J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfmk10040408"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H.S., Liu, C.C., Shiu, Y.J., Lan, P.T., Wang, A.Y., and Chiu, C.H. (2024). Caffeinated chewing gum improves basketball shooting accuracy and physical performance indicators of trained basketball players: A double-blind crossover trial. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16091256"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaszuba, M., Klocek, O., Spieszny, M., and Filip-Stachnik, A. (2022). The effect of caffeinated chewing gum on volleyball-specific skills and physical performance in volleyball players. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15010091"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2017-0405","article-title":"Effects of caffeinated gum on a battery of soccer-specific tests in trained university-standard male soccer players","volume":"28","author":"Ranchordas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yildirim, U.C., Akcay, N., Alexe, D.I., Esen, O., Gulu, M., C\u00eerti\u0163\u0103-Buzoianu, C., Cinarli, F.S., Cojocaru, M., Sari, C., and Alexe, C.I. (2023). Acute effect of different doses of caffeinated chewing gum on exercise performance in caffeine-habituated male soccer players. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1251740"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2018-0536","article-title":"Low doses of caffeine: Enhancement of physical performance in elite adolescent male soccer players","volume":"14","author":"Ellis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2023-0220","article-title":"Caffeine gum improves reaction time but reduces composure versus placebo during the extra-time period of simulated soccer match-play in male semiprofessional players","volume":"34","author":"Field","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"35","article-title":"The effect of acute consumption of caffeine gum and capsules on some functional parameters of football players during small-sided games","volume":"18","author":"Alishavandi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Almeida, R.F., de Oliveira, M., Furigo, I.C., Aquino, R., Clarke, N.D., Tallis, J., and Guimaraes-Ferreira, L. (2023). Effects of acute caffeine ingestion on cognitive performance before and after repeated small-sided games in professional soccer players: A placebo-controlled, randomized crossover trial. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15143094"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"58","article-title":"Development of a tool to assess the caffeine intake among teenagers and young adults","volume":"61","author":"Lachenmeier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ernahr. Umsch."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1081\/CBI-200041039","article-title":"Circadian Rhythms in Sports Performance\u2014An Update","volume":"22","author":"Drust","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2004.00349.x","article-title":"Muscle temperature and sprint performance during soccer matches\u2014Beneficial effect of re-warm-up at half-time","volume":"14","author":"Mohr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e3181c1f8a2","article-title":"Effect of bout duration on exercise intensity and technical performance of small-sided games in soccer","volume":"25","author":"Fanchini","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2169","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2023.2273274","article-title":"Effects of coach encouragement on psychophysiological responses and technical actions in different small-sided soccer games","volume":"22","author":"Soylu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00368504231224606","DOI":"10.1177\/00368504231224606","article-title":"Physiological and locomotor variations of 3v3 and 5v5 small-sided games soccer formats: A 4-month study on sedentary young adults","volume":"107","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200838010-00004","article-title":"The Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test: A useful tool for evaluation of physical performance in intermittent sports","volume":"38","author":"Bangsbo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-198205000-00012","article-title":"Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion","volume":"14","author":"Borg","year":"1982","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200601113638","article-title":"The Relationship Between Enjoyment and Affective Responses to Exercise","volume":"19","author":"Raedeke","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"93","article-title":"Egzersiz ve Keyif: Ergen ve Yeti\u015fkin Sporcular i\u00e7in \u00d6l\u00e7ek Uyarlama \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131","volume":"21","author":"Soylu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Spormetre Beden E\u011fitimi Spor Bilim. Derg."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.91324.2008","article-title":"Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans","volume":"106","author":"Marcora","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"89","article-title":"Investigation of the convergent validity and reliability of unit position differences of Catapult S5 GPS units in field conditions","volume":"239","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part P J. Sports Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"117","article-title":"Application of technology for the analysis of Small-Sided Games in football. From complexity to chaos in training design: Reference to number of players, playing space, orientation, time distribution, directionality with goalkeepers, and feedback","volume":"238","author":"Galiano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part P J. Sports Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Routledge). [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shabir, A., Hooton, A., Tallis, J., and FHiggins, M. (2018). The influence of caffeine expectancies on sport, exercise, and cognitive performance. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10101528"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2017-0217","article-title":"Acute ingestion of caffeinated chewing gum improves repeated sprint performance of team sport athletes with low habitual caffeine consumption","volume":"28","author":"Evans","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000002966","article-title":"Effects of caffeine chewing gum on exercise tolerance and neuromuscular responses in well-trained runners","volume":"35","author":"Dittrich","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-022-01678-z","article-title":"How to tackle mental fatigue: A systematic review of potential countermeasures and their underlying mechanisms","volume":"52","author":"Proost","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2014.984752","article-title":"Effects of caffeine chewing gum on race performance and physiology in male and female cyclists","volume":"33","author":"Paton","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-021-00448-y","article-title":"Effects of acute ingestion of caffeinated chewing gum on performance in elite judo athletes","volume":"18","author":"Krawczyk","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hulton, A.T., Staines, I., Clark, O., Subramaniam, A., and Green, J.M. (2026). The Effect of Novel Low-Dose Caffeine Products on Physical Performance. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18050791"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/12\/1962\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T06:04:28Z","timestamp":1781762668000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/12\/1962"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18121962"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18121962","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]}}}