{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T06:49:10Z","timestamp":1782197350910,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune and immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) develop when genetically and environmentally susceptible hosts lose stable immune tolerance. The gut ecosystem is increasingly recognized as a biologically active interface in this process. Its bacterial, fungal, and viral components may shape mucosal and systemic immunity through antigenic stimulation, barrier regulation, and metabolite-dependent signaling, although the strength of evidence is uneven: bacteriome data are currently the most mature, whereas mycobiome, virome, and phageome findings remain more disease-specific and emerging. Dysbiosis may influence autoimmunity through overlapping routes, including epithelial barrier failure, altered short-chain fatty acid, bile acid, and tryptophan metabolism, molecular mimicry, and cross-kingdom microbial interactions. Nutrition is central to this network because dietary substrates determine microbial growth, metabolic output, epithelial integrity, and immune-cell differentiation. In this narrative review, we integrate evidence on disease-associated bacteriome, mycobiome, and virome patterns in systemic autoimmune diseases, with emphasis on rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome, systemic sclerosis, spondyloarthritis, vasculitides, and idiopathic inflammatory myopathies. COVID-19 is considered not as a proven causal driver of autoimmunity, but as an example of an environmental and infectious insult capable of perturbing microbiome\u2013barrier\u2013immune communication. Finally, we discuss diet-based and microbiome-targeted approaches, including probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics, as adjunctive strategies that may help restore microbial resilience and immune balance. A better understanding of the diet\u2013microbiome\u2013host immunity axis may support more personalized preventive and therapeutic concepts in autoimmune disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18122032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T06:13:37Z","timestamp":1782195217000},"page":"2032","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Across Kingdoms: The Bacteriome, Mycobiome, and Virome in Autoimmune Diseases: Mechanistic Insights, Therapeutic Perspectives, and the Emerging Role of COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3355-492X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edit","family":"Posta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Bartok Bela u 2-26, 4031 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Gyarmati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Bartok Bela u 2-26, 4031 Debrecen, Hungary"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laszlo","family":"Majoros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6204-815X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Istvan","family":"Fekete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Food Technology, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Debrecen, Boszormenyi ut 138, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Istvan","family":"Varkonyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Bartok Bela u 2-26, 4031 Debrecen, Hungary"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Zold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Moricz Zsigmond krt. 22, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8200-6937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zsolt","family":"Barta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Bartok Bela u 2-26, 4031 Debrecen, Hungary"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.berh.2017.08.003","article-title":"Genetic and environmental risk factors for rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"31","author":"Deane","year":"2017","journal-title":"Best Pract. 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