{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T19:43:10Z","timestamp":1790710990087,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]],"date-time":"2026-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785628800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Asthma prevalence in school-age children varies widely by geography, from below 5% in some regions to above 20% in others, averaging 10\u201312% across industrialized countries, but genetic factors account for less than 40% of disease liability. Gut microbiota is increasingly recognized as a critical intermediary between early-life dietary exposure and immunological trajectories that determine asthma susceptibility. Through the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly butyrate, propionate, and acetate, commensal bacteria regulate dendritic cell function, promote T-regulatory (Treg) cell differentiation, and attenuate Th2-polarized airway inflammation via the gut\u2013lung axis. Epidemiological cohorts including CHILD, WHEALS, and PASTURE associate early-life dysbiosis and reduced Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii with increased asthma risk, while dietary patterns rich in fermentable fibre, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and diverse plant-based foods are associated with preserved microbial diversity and, in preclinical models, attenuated type-2 inflammatory signalling. This narrative review synthesizes mechanistic and epidemiological evidence on how nutritional exposures shape gut microbiota composition and influences asthma onset and severity in paediatric populations, including the distinct obesity-related asthma phenotype. Critical gaps, insufficient dietary intervention trials with microbiome endpoints, methodological heterogeneity across cohorts, and the paucity of data from non-Western populations are discussed, with implications for preventive nutritional counselling in paediatric allergology practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18152496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T06:17:40Z","timestamp":1785737860000},"page":"2496","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["From Diet to Dysbiosis: How Nutritional Factors Shape Gut Microbiota and Drive Airway Inflammation in Pediatric Asthma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2791-5165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oana Raluca","family":"Temneanu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6133-8784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adriana","family":"Mihai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1221-5397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raluca","family":"Olariu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9470-8880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mihaela","family":"Oros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Titu Maiorescu University, 031593 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ileana","family":"Ioniuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2640-8795","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasile Valeriu","family":"Lupu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8147-3632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ancu\u021ba","family":"Lupu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alice","family":"Grudnicki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel Florin","family":"Ro\u0219u","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roxana","family":"\u0218erban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5187-9938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreea-Luciana","family":"Avasiloaiei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Popovici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Ia\u0219i, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GAN Global Asthma Network (2022). The Global Asthma Report 2022, Global Asthma Network. Available online: https:\/\/globalasthmareport.org."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.2008.01884.x","article-title":"Global map of the prevalence of symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis in children: ISAAC Phase Three","volume":"64","author":"Pearce","year":"2009","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0906312","article-title":"A large-scale, consortium-based genomewide association study of asthma","volume":"363","author":"Moffatt","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307ra152","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aab2271","article-title":"Early infancy microbial and metabolic alterations affect risk of childhood asthma","volume":"7","author":"Arrieta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.01.007","article-title":"The role of lung and gut microbiota in the pathology of asthma","volume":"52","author":"Barcik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457489","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2025.2457489","article-title":"The role of the early-life gut microbiome in childhood asthma","volume":"17","author":"Boulund","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3444","article-title":"Gut microbiota metabolism of dietary fiber influences allergic airway disease and hematopoiesis","volume":"20","author":"Trompette","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08530","article-title":"Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43","volume":"461","author":"Maslowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12726","article-title":"Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation","volume":"504","author":"Arpaia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12721","article-title":"Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells","volume":"504","author":"Furusawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw6433","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw6433","article-title":"Identification of a T follicular helper cell subset that drives anaphylactic IgE","volume":"365","author":"Gowthaman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02263-2","article-title":"Microbiota-derived butyrate alleviates asthma via inhibiting Tfh13-mediated IgE production","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.03.005","article-title":"Crosstalk between microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids and intestinal epithelial HIF augments tissue barrier function","volume":"17","author":"Kelly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-018-0064-z","article-title":"Mechanisms by which gut microorganisms influence food sensitivities","volume":"16","author":"Caminero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24s","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.03.00000803","article-title":"Mechanisms of airway epithelial damage: Epithelial\u2013mesenchymal interactions in the pathogenesis of asthma","volume":"44","author":"Holgate","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.05.002","article-title":"Butyrate ameliorates allergic airway inflammation by limiting eosinophil trafficking and survival","volume":"144","author":"Theiler","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2016.108","article-title":"The respiratory tract microbiome and lung inflammation: A two-way street","volume":"10","author":"Huffnagle","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1785-z","article-title":"Bile acid metabolites control TH17 and Treg cell differentiation","volume":"576","author":"Hang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.08.003","article-title":"Tryptophan catabolites from microbiota engage aryl hydrocarbon receptor and balance mucosal reactivity via interleukin-22","volume":"39","author":"Zelante","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad9378","article-title":"How colonization by microbiota in early life shapes the immune system","volume":"352","author":"Gensollen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14691","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1005963107","article-title":"Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa","volume":"107","author":"Cavalieri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2024.101118","article-title":"Resistant starch and the gut microbiome: Resistant starch and the gut microbiome: Exploring beneficial interactions and dietary impacts","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12071","article-title":"Influence of Mediterranean diet on asthma in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"24","author":"Weinmayr","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kouvari, M., D\u2019Cunha, N.M., Georgousopoulou, E.N., and Naumovski, N. (2022). Adherence to the Mediterranean diet and asthma and allergy in children: A systematic review. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14081618"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.waojou.2024.100948","article-title":"Adherence to a modified Mediterranean diet and association with asthma and wheezing in schoolchildren: A cross-sectional study","volume":"17","author":"Poursoleiman","year":"2024","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07540","article-title":"A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins","volume":"457","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rank, M.A., Barroso, D.L., Conn, K.A., Pecak, M., Scandura, M., Hirsch, A.H., Gu, H., Whisner, C.M., Shearer, H., and Johnson, D. (2026). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of soluble corn fiber supplementation for children with asthma. Front. Allergy, 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/falgy.2025.1707834"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.2008.01722.x","article-title":"Mediterranean diet is associated with reduced asthma and rhinitis in Mexican children","volume":"63","author":"Romieu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cws074","article-title":"Human milk oligosaccharides: Every baby needs a sugar mama","volume":"22","author":"Bode","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.12.1044","article-title":"PASTURE study group. Increased food diversity in the first year of life is inversely associated with allergic diseases","volume":"133","author":"Roduit","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1097\/00130832-200310000-00003","article-title":"Innate immune responses to mycobacteria and the downregulation of atopic responses","volume":"3","author":"Rook","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fricker, A.D., Sejane, K., Desai, M., Snyder, M.W., Duran, L., Mackelprang, R., Bode, L., Ross, M.G., and Flores, G.E. (2025). A pilot study exploring the relationship between milk composition and microbial capacity in breastfed infants. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17020338"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong, C.B., Huang, H., Ning, Y., and Xiao, J. (2024). Probiotics in the new era of human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs): HMO utilization and beneficial effects of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis M-63 on infant health. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12051014"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-021-01599-y","article-title":"Gold standard for nutrition: A review of human milk oligosaccharide and its effects on infant gut microbiota","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajic, D., Wiens, F., Wintergerst, E., Deyaert, S., Baudot, A., and Van den Abbeele, P. (2024). HMOs impact the gut microbiome of children and adults starting from low predicted daily doses. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14040239"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2649456","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2026.2649456","article-title":"Decoding the HMO-microbiome axis: Bridging maternal milk to infant health outcomes","volume":"18","author":"Song","year":"2026","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Temneanu, O.R., Novac, O., Mihai, A., Trofin, F., Frasinariu, O.E., Popovici, P., Serban, R., Grudnicki, A.N., Ioniuc, I.K., and Barbacariu, C.L. (2026). Human milk oligosaccharides: Shaping the anti-infective status in infancy. Microorganisms, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14061261"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, Z., Chen, M., Dai, S., Wang, Y., Yao, J., Shentu, H., Huang, J., Yu, C., Zhang, H., and Wang, T. (2023). Association of cesarean section with asthma in children\/adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis based on cohort studies. BMC Pediatr., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-023-04396-1"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax9929","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aax9929","article-title":"Delivery mode and gut microbial changes correlate with an increased risk of childhood asthma","volume":"12","author":"Stokholm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001623","article-title":"Effect of synbiotic on the gut microbiota of cesarean delivered infants: A randomized, double-blind, multicenter study","volume":"65","author":"Chua","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5041417","article-title":"Fiber and prebiotics: Mechanisms and health benefits","volume":"5","author":"Slavin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sdona, E., Ekstr\u00f6m, S., Andersson, N., H\u00e5kansson, N., Wolk, A., Westman, M., van Hage, M., Kull, I., Mel\u00e9n, E., and Bergstr\u00f6m, A. (2022). Dietary fibre in relation to asthma, allergic rhinitis and sensitization from childhood up to adulthood. Clin. Transl. Allergy, 12.","DOI":"10.1002\/clt2.12188"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-023-02383-9","article-title":"Dietary patterns, lung function and asthma in childhood: A longitudinal study","volume":"24","author":"Talaei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13527","article-title":"Mediterranean diet and lung function, sensitization, and asthma at school age: The PARIS cohort","volume":"32","author":"Mazuz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.14483","article-title":"Mediterranean-type diet in school age in relation to asthma and lung function up to young adulthood","volume":"54","author":"Georgakou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901215","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01215-2019","article-title":"Mediterranean diet during pregnancy and childhood respiratory and atopic outcomes: Birth cohort study","volume":"55","author":"Northstone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s13223-016-0173-6","article-title":"Asthma and the microbiome: Defining the critical window in early life","volume":"13","author":"Stiemsma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1766","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-1095-x","article-title":"PASTURE study group. Maturation of the gut microbiome during the first year of life contributes to the protective farm effect on childhood asthma","volume":"26","author":"Depner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206507","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2023.2206507","article-title":"The propionate-GPR41 axis in infancy protects from subsequent bronchial asthma onset","volume":"15","author":"Ito","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12356","article-title":"Prenatal and post-natal exposure to antibiotics and risk of asthma in childhood","volume":"45","author":"Lundqvist","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.10.004","article-title":"Intestinal microbial diversity during early-life colonization shapes long-term IgE levels","volume":"14","author":"Cahenzli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2023.07.024","article-title":"Gut microbiome is associated with asthma and race in children with food allergy","volume":"152","author":"Mahdavinia","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.06.027","article-title":"Perinatal antibiotic-induced shifts in gut microbiota have differential effects on inflammatory lung diseases","volume":"135","author":"Russell","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1974","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2017-314968","article-title":"A randomised trial of the effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements on the human intestinal microbiota","volume":"67","author":"Watson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11276","DOI":"10.1038\/srep11276","article-title":"A host-microbiome interaction mediates the opposing effects of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids on metabolic endotoxemia","volume":"5","author":"Kaliannan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2530","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1503734","article-title":"Fish oil-derived fatty acids in pregnancy and wheeze and asthma in offspring","volume":"375","author":"Bisgaard","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/02770903.2019.1709866","article-title":"Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation during childhood in preventing allergic disease: A systematic review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"58","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7090","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.10.7090","article-title":"Respiratory epithelial cells convert inactive vitamin D to its active form: Potential effects on host defense","volume":"181","author":"Hansdottir","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Talsness, C.E., Penders, J., Jansen, E.H., Damoiseaux, J., Thijs, C., and Mommers, M. (2017). Influence of vitamin D on key bacterial taxa in infant microbiota in the KOALA Birth Cohort Study. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0188011"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"CD011511","article-title":"Vitamin D for the management of asthma","volume":"9","author":"Martineau","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.18589","article-title":"Effect of prenatal supplementation with vitamin D on asthma or recurrent wheezing in offspring by age 3 years: The VDAART randomized clinical trial","volume":"315","author":"Litonjua","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolsk, H.M., Chawes, B.L., Litonjua, A.A., Hollis, B.W., Waage, J., Stokholm, J., B\u00f8nnelykke, K., Bisgaard, H., and Weiss, S.T. (2017). Prenatal vitamin D supplementation reduces risk of asthma\/recurrent wheeze in early childhood: A combined analysis of two randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186657"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radu, I.A., Cucerea, M., Gheonea, C., Chicea, R., Teacoe, D.A., Mutic\u0103, B.I., Todor, S.B., Bo\u021ba, G., Popescu, D., and Co\u021bovanu, B.C. (2025). Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and maternal and neonatal vitamin D status at \u226432 weeks gestation: Romanian prospective observational cohort study. Children, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/children12060682"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radu, I.A., Ognean, M.L., \u0218tef, L., Giurgiu, D.I., Cucerea, M., and Gheonea, C. (2025). Vitamin D: What we know and what we still do not know about vitamin D in preterm infants\u2014A literature review. Children, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/children12030392"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"CD006474","article-title":"Prebiotics in infants for prevention of allergy","volume":"3","author":"Osborn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2006.098251","article-title":"A mixture of prebiotic oligosaccharides reduces the incidence of atopic dermatitis during the first six months of age","volume":"91","author":"Moro","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001520","article-title":"Effects of infant formula with human milk oligosaccharides on growth and morbidity: A randomized multicenter trial","volume":"64","author":"Puccio","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berger, B., Porta, N., Foata, F., Grathwohl, D., Delley, M., Moine, D., Charpagne, A., Siegwald, L., Descombes, P., and Alliet, P. (2020). Linking human milk oligosaccharides, infant fecal community types, and later risk to require antibiotics. mBio, 11.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.03196-19"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nowak-Wegrzyn, A., Czerkies, L., Reyes, K., Collins, B., and Heine, R.G. (2019). Confirmed hypoallergenicity of a novel whey-based extensively hydrolyzed infant formula containing two human milk oligosaccharides. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071447"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vandenplas, Y., \u017bo\u0142nowska, M., Canani, R.B., Ludman, S., Tengelyi, Z., Moreno-\u00c1lvarez, A., Goh, A.E.N., Gosoniu, M.L., Kirwan, B.-A., and Tadi, M. (2022). Effects of an extensively hydrolyzed formula supplemented with two human milk oligosaccharides on growth, tolerability, safety and infection risk in infants with cow\u2019s milk protein allergy: A randomized, multi-center trial. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14030530"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boulang\u00e9, C.L., Pedersen, H.K., Martin, F.-P., Siegwald, L., Caro, A.P., Eklund, A.C., Jia, W., Zhang, H., Berger, B., and Sprenger, N. (2023). CINNAMON Study Investigator Group. An extensively hydrolyzed formula supplemented with two human milk oligosaccharides modifies the fecal microbiome and metabolome in infants with cow\u2019s milk protein allergy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241411422"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e31824d5da2","article-title":"Probiotics supplementation during pregnancy or infancy for the prevention of atopic dermatitis: A meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Pelucchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12104","article-title":"No effect of probiotics on respiratory allergies: A seven-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial in infancy","volume":"24","author":"Abrahamsson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"17","article-title":"Clinical use of probiotics in pediatric allergy (CUPPA): A World Allergy Organization position paper","volume":"9","author":"Fiocchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"497","article-title":"The inhibitory effect of polyphenols on human gut microbiota","volume":"63","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosseini, B., Berthon, B.S., Wark, P., and Wood, L.G. (2017). Effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on risk of asthma, wheezing and immune responses: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9040341"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, M., Zhao, X., Liu, Y., Zhou, H., You, Y., and Xue, Z. (2023). Complex interplay of gut microbiota between obesity and asthma in children. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1264356"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"166","article-title":"Correlations among parental and neonatal anthropometric parameters, feeding practices and infant obesity","volume":"87","author":"Sabau","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clujul Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.9120-11ST","article-title":"An official ATS clinical practice guideline: Interpretation of exhaled nitric oxide levels (FENO) for clinical applications","volume":"184","author":"Dweik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11053","article-title":"Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography","volume":"486","author":"Yatsunenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.02.044","article-title":"The human gut microbiome: From association to modulation","volume":"172","author":"Schmidt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.2007.01524.x","article-title":"Working Group of GA2LEN WP 2.5 Gender. Impact of gender on asthma in childhood and adolescence: A GA2LEN review","volume":"63","author":"Almqvist","year":"2008","journal-title":"Allergy"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/15\/2496\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T08:14:28Z","timestamp":1785831268000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/15\/2496"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18152496"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18152496","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]]}}}