{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T15:13:49Z","timestamp":1786115629108,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785801600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003401","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado de Alagoas","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["E:60030.0000002337\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E:60030.0000002337\/2023"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003401","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["E:60030.0000002337\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E:60030.0000002337\/2023"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04y1y2113","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["88887.135788\/2025-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88887.135788\/2025-00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["88887.135788\/2025-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88887.135788\/2025-00"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00x0ma614","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["311401\/2022-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["311401\/2022-8"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["311401\/2022-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["311401\/2022-8"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03swz6y49","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100017013","name":"Federal University of Alagoas","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["137840\/2025-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["137840\/2025-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100017013","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["137840\/2025-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["137840\/2025-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00dna7t83","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: To evaluate the metabolic and hormonal responses after meals rich in and free of ultra-processed foods (UPF), with high or low energy density (ED), in adults without obesity (body mass index [BMI] between 18.5 and 29.9 kg\/m2, body fat percentage \u2264 30% for men and \u226442% for women). Methods: Randomized, crossover-controlled feeding trial. Participants were assigned to four conditions (UPF+\/ED+, UPF+\/ED\u2212, UPF\u2212\/ED+, and UPF\u2212\/ED\u2212), each receiving two standardized test meals (breakfast and lunch), matched for energy, macronutrients, fiber, saturated fat, free sugar, and sodium. Blood samples were collected after 12 h fasting, and 240 min after each meal completion for quantification of glucose, insulin, triglycerides, ghrelin, and leptin. Results: Nineteen participants (9 females; 22 y mean age; 23.5 kg\/m2 mean BMI) were included. The UPF condition resulted in a statistically significant increase in postprandial circulating insulin concentrations throughout the day (p = 0.016), without interactions with meal (p = 0.09). No main effects of ED or UPF \u00d7 ED interactions were observed for any outcome. Conclusions: In this exploratory secondary analysis of a randomized crossover trial, acute UPF consumption resulted in higher postprandial circulating insulin concentrations, independently of ED. These findings require confirmation in adequately powered studies. Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials (ReBEC), registration number RBR-10gfr3fb.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18152534","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T12:32:43Z","timestamp":1785846763000},"page":"2534","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Ultra-Processed Meals with Differing Energy Density on Postprandial Glyco-Insulinemic and Appetite-Related Hormonal Responses: A Randomized Crossover Trial"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9570-2176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabelle Rodrigues de Souza","family":"Gama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4009-2814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D\u00e9borah Ten\u00f3rio da Costa","family":"Paula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Paulo, S\u00e3o Paulo 04023-062, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3185-8371","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Delis Barbosa","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2760-0001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micn\u00e9ias R\u00f3berth","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7320-9468","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludmila de Melo","family":"Barros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8575-2757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guilherme C\u00e9sar Oliveira de","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3407-348X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vanessa Amorim","family":"Peixoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4675-1179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D\u00e9bora Cavalcante","family":"Ferro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7671-2416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marianna Victoria Cerqueira","family":"Rocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5312-0903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cellyne Veronica da","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7934-7849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Priscila Adelina Alves","family":"Viana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1120-7720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodrigo Ten\u00f3rio Lins","family":"Carna\u00faba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0495-8492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thayn\u00e1 Xavier Rocha de","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0541-9938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Israel","family":"Rodrigues J\u00fanior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7168-9605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mateus de Lima","family":"Macena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1501-171X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9 Eduardo","family":"da Silva-J\u00fanior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0625-0193","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabiana Andr\u00e9a","family":"Moura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3286-0297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nassib Bezerra","family":"Bueno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o e Metabolismo (LANUM), Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o (FANUT), Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Faculdade de Nutri\u00e7\u00e3o, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Macei\u00f3 57072-900, AL, Brazil"},{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de S\u00e3o Paulo, S\u00e3o Paulo 04023-062, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campos, A., Port, J.D., and Acosta, A. (2022). Integrative Hedonic and Homeostatic Food Intake Regulation by the Central Nervous System: Insights from Neuroimaging. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12040431"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-nutr-121415-112624","article-title":"The macronutrients, appetite and energy intake","volume":"36","author":"Carreiro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/ldu001","article-title":"Neuroendocrinology of obesity","volume":"109","author":"Field","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980018003762","article-title":"Ultra-processed foods: What they are and how to identify them","volume":"22","author":"Monteiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjnut.2025.06.006","article-title":"O efeito da densidade energ\u00e9tica e da taxa de alimenta\u00e7\u00e3o na ingest\u00e3o de energia ad libitum em adultos saud\u00e1veis\u2014Um estudo controlado randomizado","volume":"155","author":"Lasschuijt","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-018-03628-z","article-title":"Perception of Hunger\/Satiety and Nutrient Intake in Women Who Regain Weight in the Postoperative Period After Bariatric Surgery","volume":"29","author":"Vieira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galdino-Silva, M.B., Almeida, K.M.M., de Oliveira, A.D.S., dos Santos, J.V.L., Macena, M.d.L., Silva, D.R., Pereira, M.R., Silva-J\u00fanior, A.E., Ferro, D.C., and Paula, D.T.d.C. (2024). A Meal with Ultra-Processed Foods Leads to a Faster Rate of Intake and to a Lesser Decrease in the Capacity to Eat When Compared to a Similar, Matched Meal Without Ultra-Processed Foods. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16244398"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.05.008","article-title":"Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake","volume":"30","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5431","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.15922","article-title":"Ultra-processed foods cause weight gain and increased energy intake associated with reduced chewing frequency: A randomized, open-label, crossover study","volume":"26","author":"Hamano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665123003014","article-title":"Beyond ultra-processed: Considering the future role of food processing in human health","volume":"82","author":"Forde","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqac068","article-title":"Texture-based differences in eating rate influence energy intake for minimally processed and ultra-processed meals","volume":"116","author":"Teo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-025-01961-9","article-title":"Impact of ultra-processed foods on short-term appetite regulation: Does body mass index make a difference?","volume":"50","author":"Ulug","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/nbu.12280","article-title":"Dietary energy density: Applying behavioural science to weight management","volume":"42","author":"Rolls","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2012.01.020","article-title":"Dietary energy density and body weight in adults and children: A systematic review","volume":"112","author":"Obbagy","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duffey, K.J., and Popkin, B.M. (2011). Energy Density, Portion Size, and Eating Occasions: Contributions to Increased Energy Intake in the United States, 1977\u20132006. PLoS Med., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001050"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"l4378","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l4378","article-title":"CONSORT 2010 statement: Extension to randomised crossover trials","volume":"366","author":"Dwan","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1103","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgae341","article-title":"Defining Overweight and Obesity by Percent Body Fat Instead of Body Mass Index","volume":"110","author":"Potter","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"FAO, WHO, and UNU (2004). Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO\/WHO\/UNU Expert Consultation, FAO."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1590\/S1415-52732006000600010","article-title":"Dietary reference intakes: Aplicabilidade das tabelas em estudos nutricionais","volume":"19","author":"Padovani","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1017\/S136898001800085X","article-title":"A definition of free sugars for the UK","volume":"21","author":"Swan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023). Carbohydrate Intake for Adults and Children: WHO Guideline, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"WHO (2005). International Health Regulations, WHO. [3rd ed.]. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2015). Guideline: Sugars Intake for Adults and Children, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E190009.SUPL.2","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-549720190009.supl.2","article-title":"Estimativa do consumo de sal pela popula\u00e7\u00e3o brasileira: Resultado da Pesquisa Nacional de Sa\u00fade 2013","volume":"22","author":"Mill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Mathew, T.K., Zubair, M., and Tadi, P. (2026). Blood Glucose Monitoring. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e866","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuae093","article-title":"The Effect of the Menstrual Cycle on Energy Intake: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"83","author":"Tucker","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Empresas de Pesquisa\u2014ABEP (2024). Crit\u00e9rio de Classifica\u00e7\u00e3o Econ\u00f4mica Brasil, ABEP."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2004.06.004","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance analysis\u2014Part I: Review of principles and methods","volume":"23","author":"Kyle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1949.sp004363","article-title":"New methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism","volume":"109","author":"Weir","year":"1949","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1177\/0884533615627268","article-title":"Minimum Time to Achieve the Steady State and Optimum Abbreviated Period to Estimate the Resting Energy Expenditure by Indirect Calorimetry in Healthy Young Adults","volume":"31","author":"Borges","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.5.1277","article-title":"Reproducibility and power of ad libitum energy intake assessed by repeated single meals","volume":"87","author":"Gregersen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2338","DOI":"10.1039\/C6FO00107F","article-title":"Minimally processed foods are more satiating and less hyperglycemic than ultra-processed foods: A preliminary study with 98 ready-to-eat foods","volume":"7","author":"Fardet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1007\/s13668-022-00413-4","article-title":"Interrelations Between Food Form, Texture, and Matrix Influence Energy Intake and Metabolic Responses","volume":"11","author":"Forde","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Nutr. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-025-01218-5","article-title":"Health effects of ultra-processed food: Uncovering causal mechanisms","volume":"22","author":"Touvier","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harlan, T.S., Gow, R.V., Kornst\u00e4dt, A., Alderson, P.W., and Lustig, R.H. (2023). The Metabolic Matrix: Re-engineering ultraprocessed foods to feed the gut, protect the liver, and support the brain. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1098453"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaav0120","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aav0120","article-title":"The short-chain fatty acid propionate increases glucagon and FABP4 production, impairing insulin action in mice and humans","volume":"11","author":"Tirosh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2026.107240","article-title":"Functional foods and dietary matrices for metabolic improvement: An integrative review of mechanisms, evidence, and future directions","volume":"139","author":"Rahimah","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rondinella, D., Raoul, P.C., Valeriani, E., Venturini, I., Cintoni, M., Severino, A., Galli, F.S., Mora, V., Mele, M.C., and Cammarota, G. (2025). The Detrimental Impact of Ultra-Processed Foods on the Human Gut Microbiome and Gut Barrier. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17050859"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"e66822","article-title":"Food Additives\u2019 Impact on Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review","volume":"16","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(22)00169-8","article-title":"Ultra-processed foods and human health: From epidemiological evidence to mechanistic insights","volume":"7","author":"Srour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00048.2018","article-title":"Hepatic Insulin Clearance: Mechanism and Physiology","volume":"34","author":"Najjar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E849","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00289.2007","article-title":"Reduction of hepatic insulin clearance after oral glucose ingestion is not mediated by glucagon-like peptide 1 or gastric inhibitory polypeptide in humans","volume":"293","author":"Meier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.\u2014Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dimitriadis, G.D., Maratou, E., Kountouri, A., Board, M., and Lambadiari, V. (2021). Regulation of Postabsorptive and Postprandial Glucose Metabolism by Insulin-Dependent and Insulin-Independent Mechanisms: An Integrative Approach. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13010159"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201802095","article-title":"The cell biology of systemic insulin function","volume":"217","author":"Tokarz","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980021004523","article-title":"Intake of ultra-processed foods is associated with inflammatory markers in Brazilian adolescents","volume":"25","author":"Martins","year":"2022","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1080\/17446651.2017.1395693","article-title":"Mechanisms responsible for homeostatic appetite control: Theoretical advances and practical implications","volume":"12","author":"Hopkins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Endocrinol. Metab."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/15\/2534\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T04:31:03Z","timestamp":1785990663000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/15\/2534"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18152534"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18152534","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]}}}