{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]],"date-time":"2026-08-30T05:16:20Z","timestamp":1788066980002,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HD050625"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD050625"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["R01HD050625"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD050625"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04byxyr05","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01DK122700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DK122700"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21DK103171"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21DK103171"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01DK118409"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DK118409"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["R01DK122700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DK122700"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00adh9b73","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["R21DK103171"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21DK103171"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00adh9b73","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["R01DK118409"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DK118409"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00adh9b73","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000041","name":"American Diabetes Association","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04f6cgz95","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Food insecurity has been associated with adverse eating patterns, which increase the risk for overweight and obesity. However, most studies measure food insecurity and eating behaviors cross-sectionally, not assessing whether experiencing food insecurity over time influences eating behaviors. Therefore, this study assessed the relationship between cumulative food insecurity and food approach and food avoidance eating behaviors and evaluated the effect of breastfeeding intensity and duration on this relationship. Methods: The Study of Women, Infant Feeding and Type 2 Diabetes after Gestational Diabetes Pregnancy (SWIFT) is a prospective longitudinal cohort of 1033 mothers diagnosed with gestational diabetes and their youth. Breastfeeding intensity and duration were assessed at research visits and through mailed monthly surveys from birth to one year postpartum. The SWIFT study in Youth (SWIFT-Y) was a cohort of 701 SWIFT offspring that consented to participate in a research visit 11\u201316 years postpartum. Youth\u2019s BMI was measured at 11\u201316 years old through a research visit or their electronic health record. At each of the four research visits (6\u20139 weeks, one year, two years, and 11\u201316 years postpartum), participants were categorized as being food secure (0) or food insecure (1). Scores across the four visits were summed (range 0\u20134), reflecting the number of assessments one was classified as food insecure. The Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire was used to measure the prevalence of eight eating behaviors in the youth, with higher scores indicating that the behaviors were more apparent. According to the measure, the behaviors were categorized into two groups: food approach and food avoidance. Food approach consists of youth\u2019s food responsiveness, emotional overeating, enjoyment of food, and desire to drink, and has been positively associated with a child\u2019s BMI. Food avoidance includes the youth\u2019s satiety responsiveness, slowness in eating, emotional undereating, and food fussiness, and is negatively associated with BMI. Linear regressions assessed whether cumulative food insecurity was associated with eating patterns, and exploratory analysis analyzed whether this relationship differed by breastfeeding duration (&lt;six months, \u2265six months) and intensity (exclusive, not exclusive), controlling for the child\u2019s BMI and sociodemographic characteristics. Results: In this complete-case secondary analysis (n = 321), each additional experience of food insecurity was associated with a higher food approach score (B = 0.30, 95% CI [0.04, 0.57], p = 0.03), but not food avoidance (B = \u22120.03, 95% CI [\u22120.21, 0.15], p = 0.74). These results varied by breastfeeding duration (B = \u22120.74, p = 0.001), as the relationship remained significant among those who were breastfed for &lt;six months (B = 0.73, p &lt; 0.001) but was attenuated among those who were breastfed for \u2265six months (B = \u22120.26, p = 0.18). Conclusions: Experiencing food insecurity more during childhood is associated with adverse eating patterns at 11\u201316 years old. However, breastfeeding for \u2265six months influenced this relationship, suggesting that early-life feeding may impact the effect of food insecurity on one\u2019s eating behaviors later in life.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18172827","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T18:33:52Z","timestamp":1787942032000},"page":"2827","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cumulative Household Food Insecurity Is Associated with Adverse Eating Behaviors Among Youth Exposed to Gestational Diabetes in Utero"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Keally","family":"Haushalter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9103-696X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaimie N.","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Myles S.","family":"Faith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School and Educational Psychology, The University of Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7296-738X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yeyi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kaiser Permanente Northern California Division of Research, Pleasanton, CA 94588, USA"},{"name":"Department of Health Systems Science, Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine, Pasadena, CA 91101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6024-3843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erin A.","family":"Hudson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexis S.","family":"King","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kaiser Permanente Northern California Division of Research, Pleasanton, CA 94588, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2039-1964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erica P.","family":"Gunderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kaiser Permanente Northern California Division of Research, Pleasanton, CA 94588, USA"},{"name":"Department of Health Systems Science, Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine, Pasadena, CA 91101, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hales, L.J., and Reed-Jones, M. (2026). Food Security in the U.S.\u2014Key Statistics & Graphics, Economic Research Service."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Hales, L.J., and Reed-Jones, M. (2026). Food Security in the U.S.\u2014Definitions of Food Security, Economic Research Service."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2756","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-019-05317-8","article-title":"Food Insecurity and Chronic Disease in US Young Adults: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health","volume":"34","author":"Nagata","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. 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