{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T05:07:46Z","timestamp":1788930466708,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005375","name":"Latvian Council of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Izp-2019\/1-0335"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Izp-2019\/1-0335"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005375","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["Izp-2019\/1-0335"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Izp-2019\/1-0335"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ar66p97","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015042","name":"Riga Stradi\u0146\u0161 University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["6-DN-20\/4\/2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6-DN-20\/4\/2026"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015042","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["6-DN-20\/4\/2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6-DN-20\/4\/2026"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03nadks56","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Erythrocyte fatty acid (FA) and oxidative stress levels are influenced by a range of factors. The aim of this study was to evaluate erythrocyte FA profiles and oxidative stress markers and their relationships with each other, nutrition, lifestyle, gestational age, and pregnancy outcomes in pregnant Latvian women. Methods: A total of 74 pregnant and postpartum women were cross-sectionally examined. Dietary intake was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire; erythrocyte FA composition was analyzed using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector; and oxidative status was assessed based on Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assays, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, and selenoprotein P (SEPP1) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Results: Dietary fats constituted 42.0% of the total caloric intake. Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) predominated in erythrocytes (55.7%), with the highest concentration observed for 16:0. Although multiple significant correlations between dietary factors and laboratory parameters were identified, none remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Erythrocyte 18:3, n-3 was significantly associated with FRAP (p &lt; 0.05). Gestational complications and age did not affect biochemical parameters (p &gt; 0.05), though gestational age correlated with MDA (r = 0.377, p &lt; 0.05) and pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) with MUFAs (r = 0.373, p &lt; 0.01). The FA composition differed depending on smoking status and alcohol consumption. Conclusions: Given the exploratory nature of this study, findings should be interpreted with appropriate caution. Several associations retained statistical significance following correction for multiple comparisons, namely between erythrocyte 18:3, n-3 and FRAP, alcohol consumption and smoking with erythrocyte fatty acid profiles, maternal age and plasma MDA concentrations, and pre-gestational BMI and MUFA levels. The remaining associations did not withstand correction and should therefore be regarded as hypothesis-generating, warranting confirmation in larger, adequately powered, confirmatory studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18172859","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T12:41:18Z","timestamp":1788266478000},"page":"2859","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Comprehensive Study of Dietary and Lifestyle Correlates of Erythrocyte Membrane Fatty Acids and Oxidative Stress and Their Association with Maternal and Neonatal Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Ksenija","family":"Nikolajeva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Riga East Clinical University Hospital, 2 Hipokrata Street, LV-1038 Riga, Latvia"},{"name":"Doctoral Department, Faculty of Medicine, Riga Stradins University, 16 Dzirciema Street, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia"},{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Riga Stradins University, 26a Anninmuizas Boulevard, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0970-2127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Lece","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Occupational Safety and Environmental Health, Riga Stradins University, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3726-8724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrejs","family":"\u0160\u0137esters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Occupational Safety and Environmental Health, Riga Stradins University, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vinita","family":"Cauce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Statistics Unit, Riga Stradins University, 14 Balozu Street, LV-1048 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dzintars","family":"Za\u010ds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health, and Environment, Lejupes Street 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8205-0639","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laila","family":"Meija","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riga East Clinical University Hospital, 2 Hipokrata Street, LV-1038 Riga, Latvia"},{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Riga Stradins University, 26a Anninmuizas Boulevard, LV-1067 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang, Y.T., Chen, J.H., and Chen, K.H. (2025). The Molecular and Cellular Basis of Physiological Changes in Pregnancy and Its Implications in Neurologic and Ophthalmic Pathologies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26115220"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grzeszczak, K., \u0141anocha-Arendarczyk, N., Malinowski, W., Zi\u0119tek, P., and Kosik-Bogacka, D. (2023). Oxidative Stress in Pregnancy. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.1578.v1"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"6398520","article-title":"Association of Oxidative Stress on Pregnancy","volume":"2020","author":"Pietryga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Assani, A.-D., Boldeanu, L., Silo\u0219i, I., Boldeanu, M.V., Dijm\u0103rescu, A.L., Assani, M.-Z., Manolea, M.-M., and V\u0103duva, C.-C. (2025). Pregnancy Under Pressure: Oxidative Stress as a Common Thread in Maternal Disorders. Life, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/life15091348"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"111367","article-title":"A better quality of maternal dietary fat reduces the chance of large-for-gestational-age infants: A prospective cohort study","volume":"91\u201392","author":"Santos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.29219\/fnr.v63.3676","article-title":"Food and nutrient intake and adherence to dietary recommendations during pregnancy: A Nordic mother-child population-based cohort","volume":"63","author":"Saunders","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17562848251314827","DOI":"10.1177\/17562848251314827","article-title":"Exploring the connection between erythrocyte membrane fatty acid composition and oxidative stress in patients undergoing the Crohn\u2019s disease Therapeutic Diet Intervention (CD-TDI)","volume":"18","author":"Haskey","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6018","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.103404","article-title":"Fatty Acid Metabolism Disruptions: A Subtle yet Critical Factor in Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes","volume":"20","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2010.29182","article-title":"Fatty acids measured in plasma and erythrocyte-membrane phospholipids and derived by food-frequency questionnaire and the risk of new-onset type 2 diabetes: A pilot study in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Norfolk cohort","volume":"92","author":"Patel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.1840","article-title":"Maternal erythrocyte fatty acid composition as a predictive marker for pregnancy health","volume":"48","author":"Fayezi","year":"2022","journal-title":"BioFactors"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2021.111466","article-title":"Fatty acids in normal and pathological pregnancies","volume":"539","author":"Mauro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aparicio, E., Mart\u00edn-Grau, C., Hern\u00e1ndez-Martinez, C., Voltas, N., Canals, J., and Arija, V. (2021). Changes in fatty acid levels (saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) during pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-021-04251-0"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2004.07.002","article-title":"Essential fatty acids in erythrocyte phospholipids during pregnancy and at delivery in mothers and their neonates: Comparison with plasma phospholipids","volume":"71","author":"Vlaardingerbroek","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1159\/000471856","article-title":"Relationship between Changes in Fatty Acid Composition of the Erythrocyte Membranes and Fatty Acid Intake during Pregnancy in Pregnant Japanese Women","volume":"70","author":"Kitamura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawabata, T., Kagawa, Y., Kimura, F., Miyazawa, T., Saito, S., Arima, T., Nakai, K., and Yaegashi, N. (2017). Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Levels in Maternal Erythrocytes of Japanese Women during Pregnancy and after Childbirth. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9030245"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-018-0716-6","article-title":"Low omega-3 index values and monounsaturated fatty acid levels in early pregnancy: An analysis of maternal erythrocytes fatty acids","volume":"17","author":"Hoge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lankinen, M., Uusitupa, M., and Schwab, U. (2018). Genes and Dietary Fatty Acids in Regulation of Fatty Acid Composition of Plasma and Erythrocyte Membranes. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111785"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjnut.2025.101299","article-title":"Global Comparison of Erythrocyte EPA and DHA Concentrations in Pregnant Women","volume":"156","author":"Deutsch","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolajeva, K., Cauce, V., and Meija, L. (2025). Validation of a Food Frequency Questionnaire for Assessing Fatty Acid Intake in Latvian Pregnant Women. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17193108"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aumeistere, L., Kibilds, J., Siksna, I., Neimane, L.V., Kampara, M., Lubina, O., and Ciprovi\u010da, I. (2022). The Gut Microbiome among Postmenopausal Latvian Women in Relation to Dietary Habits. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14173568"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1307E","article-title":"Latvian National Dietary Survey on the general population","volume":"14","author":"Siksna","year":"2017","journal-title":"EFSA Support. Publ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-022-00925-z","article-title":"Selenium, selenoprotein P, and oxidative stress levels in SARS-CoV-2 patients during illness and recovery","volume":"30","author":"Skesters","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khammarnia, M., Ansari-Moghaddam, A., Kakhki, F.G., Clark, C.C.T., and Barahouei, F.B. (2024). Maternal macronutrient and energy intake during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17862-x"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1890","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-021-01665-6","article-title":"Assessment of pregnancy dietary intake and association with maternal and neonatal outcomes","volume":"91","author":"Costanza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1111\/nbu.70016","article-title":"Diet in Pregnancy: A Review of Current Challenges and Recommendations. A British Nutrition Foundation Briefing Paper","volume":"50","author":"Hart","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174426100518","article-title":"Unpacking developmental programming: A conceptual and historical analysis in the context of DOHaD","volume":"17","author":"Gretchev","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Meija, L., and Rezenberga, D. (2026, April 10). Proper Maternal Nutrition During Pregnancy Planning and Pregnancy: A Healthy Start in Life. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/librariesprovider2\/country-sites\/maternal-nutrition-eng.pdf?sfvrsn=5c6e02ee_2&download=true."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Concina, F., Pani, P., Carletti, C., Rosolen, V., Knowles, A., Parpinel, M., Ronfani, L., Mariuz, M., Vecchi Brumatti, L., and Valent, F. (2021). Nutrient Intake during Pregnancy and Adherence to Dietary Recommendations: The Mediterranean PHIME Cohort. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051434"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4048","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-83674-3","article-title":"The association between dietary fatty acid intake and the risk of developing preeclampsia: A matched case-control study","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blomhoff, R., Andersen, R., Arnesen, E.K., Christensen, J.J., Eneroth, H., Erkkola, M., Gudanaviciene, I., Halld\u00f3rsson, \u00de.I., H\u00f8yer-Lund, A., and Lemmig, E.W. (2020, April 13). Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023: Integrating Environmental Aspects. Available online: https:\/\/pub.norden.org\/nord2023-003\/nord2023-003.pdf.","DOI":"10.6027\/nord2023-003"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7292(15)30023-0","article-title":"The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) recommendations on adolescent, preconception, and maternal nutrition: \u201cThink Nutrition First\u201d","volume":"131","author":"Hanson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nutrition Working Group, O\u2019Connor, D.L., Blake, J., Bell, R., Bowen, A., Callum, J., Fenton, S., Gray-Donald, K., Rossiter, M., and Adamo, K. (2016). Canadian Consensus on Female Nutrition: Adolescence, Reproduction, Menopause, and Beyond. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can. JOGC, 38, 508\u2013554.e18.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogc.2016.01.001"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1","article-title":"Current Guidelines on Fat Intake in Pregnant and Lactating Women, Infants, Children, and Adolescents: A Scoping Review","volume":"80","author":"Zalewski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amza, M., Haj Hamoud, B., Sima, R.-M., Dinu, M.-D., Gorecki, G.-P., Popescu, M., Gic\u0103, N., Poenaru, M.-O., and Ple\u0219, L. (2024). Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)\u2014Should They Be Mandatory Supplements in Pregnancy?. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12071471"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanier, K., Wisseman, B., Strom, C., Johnston, C.A., Isler, C., DeVente, J., Newton, E., Pawlak, R., Allman-Tucker, B.R., and McDonald, S. (2023). Self-Reported Intake and Circulating EPA and DHA Concentrations in US Pregnant Women. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15071753"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2018.11.007","article-title":"Very low inadequate dietary intakes of essential n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in pregnant and lactating French women: The INCA2 survey","volume":"140","author":"Tressou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Cano, A.M., Gonz\u00e1lez-Ludlow, I., Su\u00e1rez-Rico, B.V., Montoya-Estrada, A., Pi\u00f1a-Ram\u00edrez, O., Parra-Hern\u00e1ndez, S.B., Reyes-Mu\u00f1oz, E., Estrada-Gutierrez, G., Calzada-Mendoza, C.C., and Perichart-Perera, O. (2022). Ultra-Processed Food Consumption during Pregnancy and Its Association with Maternal Oxidative Stress Markers. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11071415"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Che\u0142chowska, M., Gajewska, J., Ambroszkiewicz, J., Mazur, J., O\u0142tarzewski, M., and Maciejewski, T.M. (2021). Influence of Oxidative Stress Generated by Smoking during Pregnancy on Glutathione Status in Mother-Newborn Pairs. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10121866"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Zhang, T., Hu, S., and Sun, L. (2022). Association of serum lipid peroxidation and glutathione peroxidase 4 levels with clinical outcomes and metabolic abnormalities among patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: A case-control study in the Chinese population. Front. Biosci. (Landmark Ed.), 27.","DOI":"10.31083\/j.fbl2702068"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1186\/s12958-024-01259-x","article-title":"Oxidative stress biomarkers in pregnancy: A systematic review","volume":"22","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2023.09.025","article-title":"Serum selenium, selenoprotein P, and glutathione peroxidase 3 during early and late pregnancy in association with gestational diabetes mellitus: Prospective Odense Child Cohort","volume":"118","author":"Demircan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323891","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1323891","article-title":"Oxidative Stress Markers Differ in Two Placental Dysfunction Pathologies: Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension and Intrauterine Growth Restriction","volume":"2020","author":"Zygula","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-022-03475-6","article-title":"Variation of the Oxidative Profile in Pregnant Women with and Without Gestational Complications","volume":"26","author":"Jantsch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.55519\/JAMC-04-12325","article-title":"Comparison of oxidative stress levels during the third Trimester in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia","volume":"35","author":"Taseer","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Ayub Med. Coll. Abbottabad"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Sherbiny, S., Squillacioti, G., Colombi, N., Ghelli, F., Lenta, E., Dalla Costa, C., and Bono, R. (2023). The Effect of Dietary Patterns and Nutrient Intake on Oxidative Stress Levels in Pregnant Women: A Systematic Review. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12071427"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2020.102080","article-title":"Maternal dietary fatty acids and their roles in human placental development","volume":"155","author":"Duttaroy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, N.L., Stoodley, I., Wood, L.G., Collins, C.E., Brown, L.J., Rae, K.M., Pringle, K.G., Schumacher, T.L., and The Gomeroi Gaaynggal Advisory Committee (2023). Omega-3 Fatty Acids during Pregnancy in Indigenous Australian Women of the Gomeroi Gaaynggal Cohort. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15081943"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4918","DOI":"10.3390\/nu6114918","article-title":"Polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of maternal diet and erythrocyte phospholipid status in Chilean pregnant women","volume":"6","author":"Valenzuela","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aparicio, E., Mart\u00edn-Grau, C., Bedmar, C., Serrat Orus, N., Basora, J., Arija, V., and The ECLIPSES Study Group (2021). Maternal Factors Associated with Levels of Fatty Acids, Specifically n-3 PUFA during Pregnancy: ECLIPSES Study. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020317"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn-Grau, C., Deulofeu, R., Serrat Orus, N., Arija, V., and on behalf of the ECLIPSES Study Group (2021). Trimester-Specific Reference Ranges for Saturated, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Serum of Pregnant Women: A Cohort Study from the ECLIPSES Group. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13114037"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, S., Zhao, F., He, Y., He, T., Duan, S., Feng, G., Chen, Y., Wang, X., Szeto, I.M., and Lin, L. (2022). Association between maternal erythrocyte polyunsaturated fatty acid levels during pregnancy and offspring weight status: A birth cohort study. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.978679"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajogmf.2023.101251","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acid supply in pregnancy for risk reduction of preterm and early preterm birth","volume":"6","author":"Cetin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. MFM"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kobayashi, M., Ogawa, K., Morisaki, N., Tani, Y., Horikawa, R., and Fujiwara, T. (2017). Dietary n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Late Pregnancy and Postpartum Depressive Symptom among Japanese Women. Front. Psychiatry, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00241"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2011.04.015","article-title":"Intrauterine, postpartum and adult relationships between arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)","volume":"85","author":"Kuipers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pizent, A. (2025). Oxidative Stress-Related Metabolomic Alterations in Pregnancy: Evidence from Exposure to Air Pollution, Metals\/Metalloid, and Tobacco Smoke. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14121442"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, G., McClure, G., Hegarty, B.D., and Smith, I.G. (2015). The validity of a food frequency questionnaire as a measure of PUFA status in pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-015-0494-3"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-10-138","article-title":"Associations between dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids and arachidonic acid compositions in plasma and erythrocytes in young and elderly Japanese volunteers","volume":"10","author":"Kawabata","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2018.09.029","article-title":"Comparative effects of dietary n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), DHA and EPA on plasma lipid parameters, oxidative status and fatty acid tissue composition","volume":"63","author":"Drouin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2044","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512004060","article-title":"Erythrocyte stearidonic acid and other n-3 fatty acids and CHD in the Physicians\u2019 Health Study","volume":"109","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2009.29072","article-title":"Dietary intake of stearidonic acid-enriched soybean oil increases the omega-3 index: Randomized, double-blind clinical study of efficacy and safety","volume":"92","author":"Lemke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626S","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.111.153858","article-title":"Stearidonic acid raises red blood cell membrane eicosapentaenoic acid","volume":"142","author":"Maki","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173S","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.011130","article-title":"The Role of the Novel Lipokine Palmitoleic Acid in Health and Disease","volume":"8","author":"Frigolet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.4081\/ijas.2012.e79","article-title":"Effect of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on Stearoyl CoA-Desaturase gene expression in intramuscular lipids of lamb","volume":"11","author":"Conte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ital. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1002\/ejlt.200600044","article-title":"Biomarkers for intake of dairy fat and dairy products","volume":"108","author":"Biong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2222","DOI":"10.2337\/db14-0493","article-title":"Overfeeding of polyunsaturated versus saturated fatty acids reduces ectopic fat","volume":"63","author":"Bray","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2006.01.004","article-title":"Fatty acid elongases in mammals: Their regulation and roles in metabolism","volume":"45","author":"Jakobsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-7827(03)00039-0","article-title":"Regulation of stearoyl-CoA desaturases and role in metabolism","volume":"43","author":"Ntambi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8161","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-64960-y","article-title":"Efficacy of dietary odd-chain saturated fatty acid pentadecanoic acid parallels broad associated health benefits in humans: Could it be essential?","volume":"10","author":"Lumpkin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-7827(03)00040-7","article-title":"Elongation of long-chain fatty acids","volume":"43","author":"Leonard","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filipowicz, D., Szczepanek-Parulska, E., K\u0142obus, M., Szymanowski, K., Chillon, T.S., Asaad, S., Sun, Q., Mikulska-Sauermann, A.A., Kara\u017aniewicz-\u0141ada, M., and G\u0142\u00f3wka, F.K. (2022). Selenium Status and Supplementation Effects in Pregnancy\u2014A Study on Mother\u2013Child Pairs from a Single-Center Cohort. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14153082"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venn-Watson, S. (2024). The Cellular Stability Hypothesis: Evidence of Ferroptosis and Accelerated Aging-Associated Diseases as Newly Identified Nutritional Pentadecanoic Acid (C15:0) Deficiency Syndrome. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14070355"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201500483","article-title":"Food4Me Study. Exploring the association of dairy product intake with the fatty acids C15:0 and C17:0 measured from dried blood spots in a multipopulation cohort: Findings from the Food4Me study","volume":"60","author":"Albani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2425","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules20022425","article-title":"A review of odd-chain fatty acid metabolism and the role of pentadecanoic Acid (c15:0) and heptadecanoic Acid (c17:0) in health and disease","volume":"20","author":"Jenkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/86.4.929","article-title":"Plasma and erythrocyte biomarkers of dairy fat intake and risk of ischemic heart disease","volume":"86","author":"Sun","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2008.03.003","article-title":"Fatty acid composition of adipose tissue and blood in humans and its use as a biomarker of dietary intake","volume":"47","author":"Hodson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/134.3.522","article-title":"Soy protein affects serum insulin and hepatic SREBP-1 mRNA and reduces fatty liver in rats","volume":"134","author":"Ascencio","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.105313","article-title":"Dietary protein and the intestinal microbiota: An understudied relationship","volume":"25","author":"Bartlett","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"12971","article-title":"Gut microbiota and its metabolic potential","volume":"24","author":"Czajkowska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcnte, E., and Hartmann, P. (2025). The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease and Other Metabolic Diseases. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15040469"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29","DOI":"10.1002\/pdi3.29","article-title":"Retinoic acids and nuclear receptor signaling in liver development: Pathogenic roles in liver diseases","volume":"2","author":"Jia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Discov."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"43","article-title":"Synthesis of DHA (omega-3 fatty acid): FADS2 gene polymorphisms and regulation by PPAR\u03b1","volume":"28","author":"Majou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oilseeds Fats Crops Lipids"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves, B., Pinto, T., Aires, A., Morais, M.C., Bacelar, E., Anjos, R., Ferreira-Cardoso, J., Oliveira, I., Vilela, A., and Cosme, F. (2023). Composition of Nuts and Their Potential Health Benefits\u2014An Overview. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12050942"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Ya\u00f1ez Blanco, A., D\u00edaz-L\u00f3pez, K.M., Vilchis-Gil, J., Diaz-Garcia, H., Gomez-Lopez, J., Medina-Bravo, P., Granados-Riveron, J.T., Gallardo, J.M., Kl\u00fcnder-Kl\u00fcnder, M., and S\u00e1nchez-Urbina, R. (2022). Diet and Maternal Obesity Are Associated with Increased Oxidative Stress in Newborns: A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14040746"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200205","DOI":"10.1002\/ejlt.202200205","article-title":"Erucic acid ameliorates the lipopolysaccharide-induced memory deficit in rats through inhibited inflammation cytokines expression\/caspase 3\/NF-\u03baB pathways","volume":"125","author":"Sayyed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10168","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA120.013583","article-title":"Peroxisomal oxidation of erucic acid suppresses mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation by stimulating malonyl-CoA formation in the rat liver","volume":"295","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1002\/efd2.80","article-title":"Guideline for screening antioxidant against lipid-peroxidation by spectrophotometer","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"eFood"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2390","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.98.22.2390","article-title":"Effect of dietary patterns on measures of lipid peroxidation: Results from a randomized clinical trial","volume":"98","author":"Miller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2020.102203","article-title":"Exploring the role of LC-PUFA metabolism in pregnancy complications. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids","volume":"163","author":"Godhamgaonkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2023.102583","article-title":"Erythrocyte fatty acids and desaturase indices in early pregnancy are associated with risk of preeclampsia. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids","volume":"196","author":"Godhamgaonkar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2007.08.011","article-title":"Fatty acids, antioxidants, and oxidative stress in pre-eclampsia","volume":"100","author":"Mehendale","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2011.579209","article-title":"Altered maternal micronutrients (folic acid, vitamin B(12)) and omega 3 fatty acids through oxidative stress may reduce neurotrophic factors in preterm pregnancy","volume":"25","author":"Dhobale","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Matern.-Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-017-0636-5","article-title":"Determinants of polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations in erythrocytes of pregnant Japanese women from a birth cohort study: Study protocol and baseline findings of an adjunct study of the Japan environment & Children\u2019s study","volume":"22","author":"Saito","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2019.102037","article-title":"Influence of sociodemographic, lifestyle and genetic characteristics on maternal DHA and other polyunsaturated fatty acid status in pregnancy: A systematic review","volume":"152","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.124463","article-title":"Systemic Oxidative Stress Levels During the Course of Pregnancy: Associations with Exposure to Air Pollutants","volume":"357","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolajeva, K., Aizbalte, O., Piskurjova, A., Rezgale, R., Cauce, V., Za\u010ds, D., and Meija, L. (2023). Fatty Acid Composition of a Maternal Diet and Erythrocyte Phospholipid Status in Latvian Pregnant Women. Medicina, 59.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina59091514"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cinelli, G., Fabrizi, M., Rav\u00e0, L., Ciofi Degli Atti, M., Vernocchi, P., Vallone, C., Pietrantoni, E., Lanciotti, R., Signore, F., and Manco, M. (2016). Influence of Maternal Obesity and Gestational Weight Gain on Maternal and Foetal Lipid Profile. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8060368"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meher, A., Randhir, K., Mehendale, S., Wagh, G., and Joshi, S. (2016). Maternal Fatty Acids and Their Association with Birth Outcome: A Prospective Study. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147359"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/17\/2859\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T04:24:09Z","timestamp":1788927849000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/17\/2859"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18172859"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18172859","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]}}}