{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T05:07:51Z","timestamp":1789016871351,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Medical University of Silesia"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/005k7hp45","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) remains a major clinical challenge, with postprandial hyperglycemia (PPG) playing a key role in the development of vascular complications. Current pharmacotherapies often do not sufficiently control PPG, highlighting the need for complementary strategies. One effective approach is the inhibition of carbohydrate digesting enzymes, \u03b1-amylase and \u03b1-glucosidase, which delays glucose absorption and reduces PPG excursions. Flavonoids, a diverse class of plant-derived polyphenols, exhibit multiple biological activities relevant to T2DM, including enzyme inhibition, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which flavonoids modulate glucose metabolism, with particular emphasis on their interactions with \u03b1-amylase and \u03b1-glucosidase. Structure\u2013activity relationships are discussed, focusing on the influence of hydroxylation patterns, conjugation, and molecular planarity on inhibitory potency and selectivity. Selected flavonoids\u2014chrysin, apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin\u2014are comparatively analyzed in terms of enzyme inhibition profiles, binding mechanisms, and selectivity. Evidence from in vitro studies, enzyme kinetics, and molecular docking highlights their differential activity, particularly the preferential inhibition of \u03b1-glucosidase over \u03b1-amylase, which may reduce gastrointestinal side effects. Overall, flavonoids represent promising modulators of PPG. However, their clinical relevance is limited by bioavailability and variability of experimental data, warranting further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18182944","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T08:10:22Z","timestamp":1788855022000},"page":"2944","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Therapeutic Potential of Selected Flavonoids as Natural Antidiabetic Agents"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9965-8851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Klaudia","family":"Stocerz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 15 Poniatowskiego Str., 40-055 Katowice, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Community Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 8b Jednosci Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, 4 Jagiellonska Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-5299-317X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arkadiusz","family":"Sokal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 15 Poniatowskiego Str., 40-055 Katowice, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Community Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 8b Jednosci Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, 4 Jagiellonska Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8389-177X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patryk","family":"Mruczek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, 4 Jagiellonska Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9045-5428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika","family":"Kadela-Tomanek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, 4 Jagiellonska Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0030-6002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Ramos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Community Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 8b Jednosci Str., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"102037","article-title":"Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus\u2014Conventional Therapies and Future Perspectives in Innovative Treatment","volume":"42","author":"Gieroba","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patsiliva, M., Theodorakopoulou, A., Stergioti, A., Rebelos, E., Liberopoulos, E., Anastasiou, I.A., and Tentolouris, N. (2026). Association Between Advanced Glycation End-Products and Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18121887"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_1349_20","article-title":"Prevalence of Obesity and Overweight among Type 2 Diabetic Patients in Bisha, Saudi Arabia","volume":"10","author":"AlShahrani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damian, D.J., Kimaro, K., Mselle, G., Kaaya, R., and Lyaruu, I. (2017). Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among Type 2 Diabetic Patients Attending Diabetes Clinics in Northern Tanzania. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2861-9"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.4103\/kleuhsj.kleuhsj_221_18","article-title":"Prevalence of Obesity among Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients in Urban Areas of Belagavi","volume":"13","author":"Jambulingam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Health Sci. Biomed. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11795514251370507","DOI":"10.1177\/11795514251370507","article-title":"Postprandial Glucose: A Variable in Continuum","volume":"18","author":"Joshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Insights Endocrinol. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maida, C.D., Scaglione, S., Norrito, R.L., Daidone, M., Pacinella, G., Marchese, A., Vutano, F., Cassataro, G., Dell\u2019Ajra, L., and Ferrantelli, S. (2026). Dietary Modulation of Inflammatory and Oxidative Pathways in Type 2 Diabetes: Biomarkers and Cardiorenal Outcomes. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18101592"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, P., Lozano, P., Ros, G., and Solano, F. (2023). Hyperglycemia and Oxidative Stress: An Integral, Updated and Critical Overview of Their Metabolic Interconnections. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24119352"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, D.-R., Wang, M.-Y., Zhang, C.-L., and Wang, Y. (2024). Endothelial Dysfunction in Vascular Complications of Diabetes: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms and Implications. Front. Endocrinol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1359255"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gkrinia, E.M.M., and Belan\u010di\u0107, A. (2025). The Mechanisms of Chronic Inflammation in Obesity and Potential Therapeutic Strategies: A Narrative Review. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol., 47.","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47050357"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3000605231164548","DOI":"10.1177\/03000605231164548","article-title":"Insulin Resistance and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"51","author":"Kosmas","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C375","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00379.2020","article-title":"Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Metabolic Dysfunction in Obesity","volume":"320","author":"Kawai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.12.013","article-title":"Inflammation in Obesity, Diabetes, and Related Disorders","volume":"55","author":"Rohm","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banerjee, D., and Mani, A. (2025). Obesity\u2019s Systemic Impact: Exploring Molecular and Physiological Links to Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, and Heart Failure. Front. Endocrinol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1681766"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.2337\/cd18-0040","article-title":"Importance of Postprandial Glucose in Relation to A1C and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"37","author":"Hershon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"145","article-title":"Type 2 Diabetes: Postprandial Hyperglycemia and Increased Cardiovascular Risk","volume":"6","author":"Aryangat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2004.020511","article-title":"Postprandial Dysmetabolism and Cardiovascular Disease in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"81","author":"Tushuizen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13653","article-title":"When Basal Insulin Is Not Enough: A Dose-Response Relationship Between Insulin Glargine 100 Units\/mL and Glycaemic Control","volume":"21","author":"Umpierrez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2006.05.012","article-title":"Targeting Postprandial Hyperglycemia","volume":"55","author":"Rendell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6320","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1987","article-title":"Inhibitors of \u03b1-Amylase and \u03b1-Glucosidase: Potential Linkage for Whole Cereal Foods on Prevention of Hyperglycemia","volume":"8","author":"Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41387-021-00152-5","article-title":"Effects of Alpha-Glucosidase-Inhibiting Drugs on Acute Postprandial Glucose and Insulin Responses: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Alssema","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.18203\/2319-2003.ijbcp20251072","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review on Acarbose in Glycaemia Control: Current Insights and Future Prospects","volume":"14","author":"Singh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Basic Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Akmal, M., Patel, P., and Wadhwa, R. (2026, June 15). Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitors, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/sites\/books\/NBK557848\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2020.111738","article-title":"An Overview on the Role of Bioactive \u03b1-Glucosidase Inhibitors in Ameliorating Diabetic Complications","volume":"145","author":"Hossain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kashtoh, H., and Baek, K.-H. (2022). Recent Updates on Phytoconstituent Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors: An Approach towards the Treatment of Type Two Diabetes. Plants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants11202722"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-198835030-00003","article-title":"Acarbose: A Preliminary Review of Its Pharmacodynamic and Pharmacokinetic Properties, and Therapeutic Potential","volume":"35","author":"Clissold","year":"1988","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"McIver, L.A., Preuss, C.V., and Tripp, J. (2026, June 15). Acarbose, StatPearls [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK493214\/."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"3023","article-title":"Voglibose: An Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitor","volume":"7","author":"Dabhi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.104988","article-title":"The Effect of Voglibose on Metabolic Profiles in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials","volume":"159","author":"Tabrizi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y.S., Zheng, Y.D., Yuan, Y., Chen, S.C., and Xie, B.C. (2021). Effects of Anti-Diabetic Drugs on Fracture Risk: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.735824"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-200059030-00012","article-title":"Miglitol: A Review of Its Therapeutic Potential in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"59","author":"Scott","year":"2000","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-015-0048-8","article-title":"Miglitol Has Potential as a Therapeutic Drug Against Obesity","volume":"12","author":"Sugimoto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2012.05.109","article-title":"Miglitol, \u03b1-Glycosidase Inhibitor, Reduces Visceral Fat Accumulation and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Subjects with the Metabolic Syndrome: A Randomized Comparable Study","volume":"167","author":"Shimabukuro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navia, S.H., Vega, L., Rodr\u00edguez, T., and Rodr\u00edguez-Sosa, M. (2026). Immunomodulatory Effects of Flavonoids in Colitis-Associated Colorectal Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27041883"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vezza, T., Rodr\u00edguez-Nogales, A., Algieri, F., Utrilla, M.P., Rodriguez-Cabezas, M.E., and Galvez, J. (2016). Flavonoids in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Review. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8040211"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00f3ritz, A.V., Horv\u00e1th, N.L., M\u00e1rton, R.A., Szilasi, A., Jerzsele, \u00c1., Ps\u00e1der, R., and Farkas, O. (2026). Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Flavonoids in an LPS-Induced In Vitro Model of Canine Chronic Enteropathy. Animals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16030450"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5608","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.98107","article-title":"Harnessing the Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Polyphenols in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"20","author":"Boaru","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1080\/14756366.2017.1368503","article-title":"\u03b1-Glucosidase Inhibition by Flavonoids: An In Vitro and In Silico Structure\u2013Activity Relationship Study","volume":"32","author":"Freitas","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Enzym. Inhib. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, C., Liu, X., Jiang, Z., Geng, S., Ma, H., and Liu, B. (2019). Interaction Mechanism of Flavonoids and \u03b1-Glucosidase: Experimental and Molecular Modelling Studies. Foods, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods8090355"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barber, E., Houghton, M.J., and Williamson, G. (2021). Flavonoids as Human Intestinal \u03b1-Glucosidase Inhibitors. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10081939"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s13659-023-00424-w","article-title":"Flavonoids as Dual-Target Inhibitors Against \u03b1-Glucosidase and \u03b1-Amylase: A Systematic Review Of In Vitro Studies","volume":"14","author":"Lam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Bioprospect."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khajuria, R., Singh, S., and Bahl, A. (2019). General Introduction and Sources of Flavonoids. Current Aspects of Flavonoids, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-5874-6_1"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Feng, Y., Yu, S., Fan, Z., Li, X., Li, J., and Yin, H. (2021). The Flavonoid Biosynthesis Network in Plants. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222312824"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Wang, X., Cheng, Y., Gao, H., and Chen, X. (2023). A Review of Classification, Biosynthesis, Biological Activities and Potential Applications of Flavonoids. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28134982"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plantsci.2022.111196","article-title":"Molecular Components Associated with the Regulation of Flavonoid Biosynthesis","volume":"317","author":"Naik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Justino, G.C. (2017). Flavonoids: Important Biocompounds in Food. Flavonoids\u2014From Biosynthesis to Human Health, InTech. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.5772\/65575"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhuang, W.-B., Li, Y.-H., Shu, X.-C., Pu, Y.-T., Wang, X.-J., Wang, T., and Wang, Z. (2023). The Classification, Molecular Structure and Biological Biosynthesis of Flavonoids, and Their Roles in Biotic and Abiotic Stresses. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28083599"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.132531","article-title":"Plant Flavonoids: Classification, Distribution, Biosynthesis, and Antioxidant Activity","volume":"383","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e47","DOI":"10.1017\/jns.2016.41","article-title":"Flavonoids: An Overview","volume":"5","author":"Panche","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s43188-020-00080-z","article-title":"Flavonoids: Structure\u2013Function and Mechanisms of Action and Opportunities for Drug Development","volume":"37","author":"Safe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2020.08.003","article-title":"Inhibition of \u03b1-Amylase by Polyphenolic Compounds: Substrate Digestion, Binding Interactions and Nutritional Intervention","volume":"104","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2018.08.057","article-title":"Inhibition of \u03b1-Amylase by Flavonoids: Structure Activity Relationship (SAR)","volume":"206","year":"2019","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2024.100346","article-title":"Dietary Polyphenols as Potential Therapeutic Agents in Type 2 Diabetes Management: Advances and Opportunities","volume":"16","author":"Barik","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.22146\/ijc.58439","article-title":"Flavonoids as Antidiabetic Agents","volume":"21","author":"Cahyana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indones. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"2057333","article-title":"Hypoglycemic Effects of Plant Flavonoids: A Review","volume":"2021","author":"Darmarajan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.130981","article-title":"Structural Requirements of Flavonoids for the Selective Inhibition of \u03b1-Amylase versus \u03b1-Glucosidase","volume":"370","author":"Lim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.129056","article-title":"Comparative Study of Inhibition Mechanisms of Structurally Different Flavonoid Compounds on \u03b1-Glucosidase and Synergistic Effect with Acarbose","volume":"347","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2022.119485","article-title":"Mechanistic Study and Synergistic Effect on Inhibition of \u03b1-Amylase by Structurally Similar Flavonoids","volume":"360","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.128256","article-title":"Inhibition of Starch Digestion by Flavonoids: Role of Flavonoid-Amylase Binding Kinetics","volume":"341","author":"Bordenave","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2021.104739","article-title":"Structure-Activity Relationship and Interaction Mechanism of Nine Structurally Similar Flavonoids and \u03b1-Amylase","volume":"86","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5618","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.1c01109","article-title":"Chrysin Improves Glucose and Lipid Metabolism Disorders via AMPK\/PI3K\/AKT Pathway in Insulin-Resistant HepG2 Cells and HFD\/STZ-Induced C57BL\/6J Mice","volume":"69","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1139\/cjpp-2014-0412","article-title":"Chrysin Treatment Improves Diabetes and Its Complications in Liver, Brain, and Pancreas in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats","volume":"94","author":"Samarghandian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21995","DOI":"10.1002\/jbt.21995","article-title":"The Impact of Some Natural Phenolic Compounds on Carbonic Anhydrase, Acetylcholinesterase, Butyrylcholinesterase, and A-Glycosidase Enzymes: An Antidiabetic, Anticholinergic, and Antiepileptic Study","volume":"31","author":"Taslimi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s13065-018-0445-y","article-title":"Inhibitory Effects Against A-Glucosidase and A-Amylase of the Flavonoids-Rich Extract from Scutellaria Baicalensis Shoots and Interpretation of Structure-Activity Relationship of Its Eight Flavonoids by a Refined Assign-Score Method","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Cent. J."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"208","article-title":"Determination of A-Glucosidase Inhibitors from Scutscutellaria Baicalensis Using Liquid Chromatography with Quadrupole Time of Flight Tandem Mass Spectrometry Coupled with Centrifugal Ultrafiltration","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. J. Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1659","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2008.01.055","article-title":"Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Novel 8-Aminomethylated Oroxylin A Analogues as Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors","volume":"18","author":"Tiwari","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salehi, B., Venditti, A., Sharifi-Rad, M., Kr\u0119giel, D., Sharifi-Rad, J., Durazzo, A., Lucarini, M., Santini, A., Souto, E.B., and Novellino, E. (2019). The Therapeutic Potential of Apigenin. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20061305"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.91695","article-title":"Apigenin targets fetuin-A to ameliorate obesity-induced insulin resistance","volume":"20","author":"Hsu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2020.127665","article-title":"Potential \u03b1-Glucosidase Inhibitor from Hylotelephium erythrostictum","volume":"30","author":"Quan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2021.105083","article-title":"Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic dual activities of extracts and flavonoids from Desmodium caudatum and an efficient synthesis of the most potent 8-prenylquercetin","volume":"156","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2022.113467","article-title":"Exploring the Phytochemicals and Inhibitory Effects against \u03b1-Glucosidase and Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV in Chinese Pickled Chili Pepper: Insights into Mechanisms by Molecular Docking Analysis","volume":"162","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fshw.2023.03.021","article-title":"Anti-Diabetic Potential of Apigenin, Luteolin, and Baicalein via Partially Activating PI3K\/Akt\/Glut-4 Signaling Pathways in Insulin-Resistant Hepg2 Cells","volume":"12","author":"Miao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Sci. Hum. Wellness"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AL-Ishaq, R.K., Abotaleb, M., Kubatka, P., Kajo, K., and B\u00fcsselberg, D. (2019). Flavonoids and Their Anti-Diabetic Effects: Cellular Mechanisms and Effects to Improve Blood Sugar Levels. Biomolecules, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom9090430"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djeujo, F.M., Ragazzi, E., Urettini, M., Sauro, B., Cichero, E., Tonelli, M., and Froldi, G. (2022). Magnolol and Luteolin Inhibition of \u03b1-Glucosidase Activity: Kinetics and Type of Interaction Detected by In Vitro and In Silico Studies. Pharmaceuticals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph15020205"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jasms.2009.04.003","article-title":"Screening and Structural Characterization of Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors from Hawthorn Leaf Flavonoids Extract by Ultrafiltration LC-DAD-MS(N) and SORI-CID FTICR MS","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.1007\/s00044-018-2164-2","article-title":"Inhibitor Discovery From Pomegranate Rind For Targeting Human Salivary \u03b1-Amylase","volume":"27","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867323666160909153707","article-title":"The Antidiabetic Potential of Quercetin: Underlying Mechanisms","volume":"24","author":"Eid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2614","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-016-2228-6","article-title":"In Vitro Antioxidant, Anti-Diabetic and Antilipemic Potentials of Quercetagetin Extracted from Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) Inflorescence Residues","volume":"53","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, G.T.T., Kase, E.T., Wangensteen, H., and Barsett, H. (2017). Effect of Phenolic Compounds from Elderflowers on Glucose- and Fatty Acid Uptake in Human Myotubes and HepG2-Cells. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22010090"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Xiang, L., Wang, C., Tang, C., and He, X. (2013). Antidiabetic and Antioxidant Effects and Phytochemicals of Mulberry Fruit (Morus alba L.) Polyphenol Enhanced Extract. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071144"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.013","article-title":"Effect Of Quercetin On The In Vitro Tartary Buckwheat Starch Digestibility","volume":"183","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dej-adisai, S., Rais, I.R., Wattanapiromsakul, C., and Pitakbut, T. (2021). Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitory Assay-Screened Isolation and Molecular Docking Model from Bauhinia pulla Active Compounds. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26195970"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/28.1.235","article-title":"The Protein Data Bank","volume":"28","author":"Berman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/18\/2944\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T04:16:59Z","timestamp":1789013819000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/18\/2944"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18182944"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18182944","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]}}}