{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T13:12:04Z","timestamp":1789996324163,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":164,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789776000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a disorder of gut\u2013brain interaction affecting approximately 7% of the global population under Rome IV criteria, characterised by postprandial fullness, early satiation, epigastric pain, and\/or epigastric burning in the absence of identifiable organic disease. Meal ingestion is the dominant symptom trigger in the majority of patients, yet the relationship between diet and FD is bidirectional: dietary exposures drive symptoms through established pathophysiological mechanisms, while FD itself can promote maladaptive eating behaviours and progressive dietary restriction with nutritional and psychological consequences. The pathophysiological substrate linking diet to symptom generation encompasses impaired gastric accommodation and emptying, visceral hypersensitivity to mechanical and chemical stimuli, low-grade duodenal mucosal immune activation and epithelial barrier impairment, alterations of the small intestinal microbiota, and gut\u2013brain axis dysregulation. Dietary fat is the macronutrient most consistently implicated, acting through cholecystokinin-mediated chemosensory and mechanosensory pathways. Cross-sectional population data suggest that a high protein intake may also be associated with epigastric pain, although this association did not persist after multivariable adjustment, while the evidence linking total carbohydrate intake to symptoms remains sparse and inconsistent, so that no recommendation on total carbohydrate intake can currently be made. Cognitive factors, including learned food beliefs, expectancy, and nocebo effects, further modulate symptom perception independently of actual nutrient content. Among dietary patterns, Mediterranean-style eating offers the most coherent mechanistic rationale and the strongest observational support, while a diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAP) shows selective benefit in patients with postprandial distress syndrome features or prominent bloating. Common triggers including spicy foods, coffee, and alcohol show heterogeneous evidence driven by individual sensitivity rather than dose-related effects. Nutritional concerns are substantial: clinically significant weight loss affects approximately 35% of tertiary-care patients, and nearly 40% screen positive for avoidant\/restrictive food intake behaviour using validated screening tools. Dietary management should therefore be individualised, nutritionally adequate, and integrated within a broader biopsychosocial framework, with screening for disordered eating before any elimination strategy is initiated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18183064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T12:50:03Z","timestamp":1789995003000},"page":"3064","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Role of Diet in Functional Dyspepsia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9816-4171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luisa","family":"Bertin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology (DiSCOG), University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padua, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7823-016X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cedric","family":"Van de Bruaene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2585-4566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Formisano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutritional Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV 6, 16132 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliera Metropolitana (AOM), Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5996-4259","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcella","family":"Pesce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Piccirelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Endoscopy and Gastroenterology, Fondazione Poliambulanza Istituto Ospedaliero, Via Bissolati 57, 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7672-0686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele","family":"Salvi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Endoscopy and Gastroenterology, Fondazione Poliambulanza Istituto Ospedaliero, Via Bissolati 57, 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7537-5806","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karen","family":"Routhiaux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism (CHROMETA), KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1791-4506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Pasta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV 6, 16132 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliera Metropolitana (AOM), Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Calabrese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV 6, 16132 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliera Metropolitana (AOM), Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2798-552X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federico","family":"Caldart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Medicine, Pancreas Institute, University of Verona, Piazzale L.A. Scuro 10, 37134 Verona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2365-6868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Crucill\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Medicine, Pancreas Institute, University of Verona, Piazzale L.A. Scuro 10, 37134 Verona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1467-1134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Sarnelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4507-8605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Marabotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV 6, 16132 Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliera Metropolitana (AOM), Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javier","family":"Chahuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Gastroenterolog\u00eda, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Santiago 8330077, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"van Gils","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3187-2894","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edoardo Vincenzo","family":"Savarino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology (DiSCOG), University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padua, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2026.01.038","article-title":"Gastroduodenal Disorders","volume":"170","author":"Carbone","year":"2026","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4172","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-54716-3","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Functional Dyspepsia According to Rome Criteria, 1990\u20132020: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.04.014","article-title":"Worldwide Prevalence and Burden of Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders, Results of Rome Foundation Global Study","volume":"160","author":"Sperber","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm20026","article-title":"Functional Dyspepsia: A Narrative Review with a Focus on Sex-Gender Differences","volume":"26","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2025.05.017","article-title":"Navigating the Maze of Functional Dyspepsia: Emergence of a New Entity, Postprandial Epigastric Pain Syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Carbone","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2022-327745","article-title":"Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection: The Maastricht VI\/Florence Consensus Report","volume":"71","author":"Malfertheiner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1967","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-326583","article-title":"Efficacy of Helicobacter pylori Eradication Therapy for Functional Dyspepsia: Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"71","author":"Ford","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"d\u2019Udekem d\u2019Acoz, L., Carbone, F., Basnayake, C., and Biesiekierski, J. (2025). The Impact of Diet on Functional Dyspepsia: A Critical Review of Current Evidence. Proc. Nutr. Soc., Online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665125101766"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2004.05.030","article-title":"Pathophysiology and Treatment of Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"127","author":"Tack","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-318536","article-title":"Novel Concepts in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"69","author":"Wauters","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30469-4","article-title":"Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"396","author":"Ford","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2022-327737","article-title":"British Society of Gastroenterology Guidelines on the Management of Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"71","author":"Black","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm24176","article-title":"The Duodenal Microenvironment in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"31","author":"Huyghe","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp2501860","article-title":"Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"394","author":"Pasricha","year":"2026","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(98)70012-5","article-title":"Role of Impaired Gastric Accommodation to a Meal in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"115","author":"Tack","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2016.499","article-title":"Pathophysiological Abnormalities in Functional Dyspepsia Subgroups According to the Rome III Criteria","volume":"112","author":"Vanheel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.078634","article-title":"Functional Dyspepsia, Delayed Gastric Emptying, and Impaired Quality of Life","volume":"55","author":"Talley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2003.07389.x","article-title":"Symptoms Associated with Impaired Gastric Emptying of Solids and Liquids in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"98","author":"Sarnelli","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.1996.v110.pm8612991","article-title":"Risk Indicators of Delayed Gastric Emptying of Solids in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"110","author":"Stanghellini","year":"1996","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.01.230","article-title":"Functional Dyspepsia and Gastroparesis in Tertiary Care Are Interchangeable Syndromes with Common Clinical and Pathologic Features","volume":"160","author":"Pasricha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.2001.27180","article-title":"Symptoms Associated with Hypersensitivity to Gastric Distention in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"121","author":"Tack","year":"2001","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2012.246","article-title":"Dietary and Lifestyle Factors in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"10","author":"Azpiroz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2013.05.018","article-title":"In Functional Dyspepsia, Hypersensitivity to Postprandial Distention Correlates with Meal-Related Symptom Severity","volume":"145","author":"Vanheel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02212683","article-title":"Nutrient-Specific Modulation of Gastric Mechanosensitivity in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"40","author":"Barbera","year":"1995","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.48.3.347","article-title":"Role of Duodenal Lipid and Cholecystokinin A Receptors in the Pathophysiology of Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"48","author":"Feinle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2014.330","article-title":"Increased Nutrient Sensitivity and Plasma Concentrations of Enteral Hormones during Duodenal Nutrient Infusion in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"109","author":"Bharucha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2008.02041.x","article-title":"Functional Dyspepsia Is Associated with a Greater Symptomatic Response to Fat but Not Carbohydrate, Increased Fasting and Postprandial CCK, and Diminished PYY","volume":"103","author":"Pilichiewicz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2007.00900.x","article-title":"Characterization of Sensations Induced by Capsaicin in the Upper Gastrointestinal Tract","volume":"19","author":"Hammer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13176","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.13176","article-title":"Up-Regulation of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid (TRPV) and down-Regulation of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Expression in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia (FD)","volume":"30","author":"Cheung","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2036.2002.01280.x","article-title":"The Treatment of Functional Dyspepsia with Red Pepper","volume":"16","author":"Bortolotti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00535-025-02268-2","article-title":"Why Are Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction (DGBI) Often Food-Related? Duodenal Eosinophils and Mast Cells, Small Intestinal Bacteria, Food Allergy and Altered Food Intake in Functional Dyspepsia and the Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A New Paradigm","volume":"60","author":"Talley","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2022.01.014","article-title":"Duodenal Eosinophils and Mast Cells in Functional Dyspepsia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies","volume":"20","author":"Shah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5383","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-23620-y","article-title":"Activation of Eosinophils and Mast Cells in Functional Dyspepsia: An Ultrastructural Evaluation","volume":"8","author":"Vanheel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2015.158","article-title":"Evidence for Neuronal and Structural Changes in Submucous Ganglia of Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"110","author":"Cirillo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2012-303857","article-title":"Impaired Duodenal Mucosal Integrity and Low-Grade Inflammation in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"63","author":"Vanheel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3228","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-019-5470-8","article-title":"The Altered Mucosal Barrier Function in the Duodenum Plays a Role in the Pathogenesis of Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"64","author":"Komori","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2021.09.029","article-title":"Duodenal Mucosal Barrier in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"20","author":"Narayanan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2010.512","article-title":"Small Bowel Homing T Cells Are Associated with Symptoms and Delayed Gastric Emptying in Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"106","author":"Liebregts","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15120","article-title":"Population Based Study: Atopy and Autoimmune Diseases Are Associated with Functional Dyspepsia and Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Independent of Psychological Distress","volume":"49","author":"Koloski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.12.016","article-title":"Proton Pump Inhibitors Reduce Duodenal Eosinophilia, Mast Cells, and Permeability in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"160","author":"Wauters","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2014.07.046","article-title":"Confocal Endomicroscopy Shows Food-Associated Changes in the Intestinal Mucosa of Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome","volume":"147","author":"Schuppan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2019.03.046","article-title":"Many Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome Have Atypical Food Allergies Not Associated With Immunoglobulin E","volume":"157","author":"Pflaum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70244","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.70244","article-title":"Targeted Dietary Exclusion Using Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy Does Not Improve Symptom Burden in Functional Dyspepsia: Results from a Randomized, Double-Blind, Sham-Controlled, Cross-Over Study","volume":"38","author":"Schol","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2016-312574","article-title":"Dyspepsia and the Microbiome: Time to Focus on the Small Intestine","volume":"66","author":"Zhong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000001197","article-title":"Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth in Functional Dyspepsia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"116","author":"Gurusamy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13006","article-title":"Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis: Post-Infectious Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"41","author":"Futagami","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.70222","article-title":"Second Asian Consensus Report on Functional Dyspepsia (2025): Updated Recommendations","volume":"41","author":"Mahadeva","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.15717","article-title":"Post-Infection Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders Following Coronavirus Disease-19: A Case-Control Study","volume":"37","author":"Ghoshal","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1738","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.2002.33663","article-title":"Clinical and Pathophysiological Characteristics of Acute-Onset Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"122","author":"Tack","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2010.151","article-title":"Migration of Eosinophils and CCR2-\/CD68-Double Positive Cells into the Duodenal Mucosa of Patients with Postinfectious Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"105","author":"Futagami","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2009.03.039","article-title":"Anxiety Is Associated with Uninvestigated and Functional Dyspepsia (Rome III Criteria) in a Swedish Population-Based Study","volume":"137","author":"Aro","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2015.01.039","article-title":"Anxiety Is Linked to New-Onset Dyspepsia in the Swedish Population: A 10-Year Follow-up Study","volume":"148","author":"Aro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2011-300474","article-title":"The Brain\u2013Gut Pathway in Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders Is Bidirectional: A 12-Year Prospective Population-Based Study","volume":"61","author":"Koloski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-305690","article-title":"Psychological Stress and Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Increase Intestinal Permeability in Humans by a Mast Cell-Dependent Mechanism","volume":"63","author":"Vanuytsel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.12419","article-title":"Duodenal Eosinophilia and Early Satiety in Functional Dyspepsia: Confirmation of a Positive Association in an Australian Cohort","volume":"29","author":"Walker","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2009.181701","article-title":"Psychological Stress Induces Eosinophils to Produce Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone in the Intestine","volume":"58","author":"Zheng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.12793","article-title":"Functional Neuroimaging Studies in Functional Dyspepsia Patients: A Systematic Review","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1159\/000375454","article-title":"Increased Cerebral Cannabinoid-1 Receptor Availability Is a Stable Feature of Functional Dyspepsia: A [F]MK-9470 PET Study","volume":"84","author":"Ly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychother. Psychosom."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy077","article-title":"Fat Label Compared with Fat Content: Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Brain Activity in Functional Dyspepsia Patients and Healthy Controls","volume":"108","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.52.10.1414","article-title":"Role of Cognitive Factors in Symptom Induction Following High and Low Fat Meals in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"52","author":"Meier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(23)00317-5","article-title":"The Effect of Expectancy versus Actual Gluten Intake on Gastrointestinal and Extra-Intestinal Symptoms in Non-Coeliac Gluten Sensitivity: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, International, Multicentre Study","volume":"9","author":"Lawton","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00036.2022","article-title":"Ca2+ Dynamics in Interstitial Cells: Foundational Mechanisms for the Motor Patterns in the Gastrointestinal Tract","volume":"104","author":"Sanders","year":"2024","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2011.01.046","article-title":"Cellular Changes in Diabetic and Idiopathic Gastroparesis","volume":"140","author":"Grover","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.51.2.219","article-title":"Role of Nitric Oxide in the Gastric Accommodation Reflex and in Meal Induced Satiety in Humans","volume":"51","author":"Tack","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2014.270850","article-title":"Gastrointestinal Hormones and the Dialogue between Gut and Brain","volume":"592","author":"Dockray","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s41043-025-01223-4","article-title":"Association between Dietary Habits and Risk of Functional Dyspepsia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Data","volume":"45","author":"Ostadsharif","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Health Popul. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2015.08.022","article-title":"Meal Frequency in Relation to Prevalence of Functional Dyspepsia among Iranian Adults","volume":"32","author":"Hassanzadeh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3942","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.902705","article-title":"Certain Dietary Habits Contribute to the Functional Dyspepsia in South China Rural Area","volume":"23","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm21146","article-title":"Association Between Eating Behavior, Frequency of Meals, and Functional Dyspepsia in Young Japanese Population","volume":"28","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14733","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14733","article-title":"Randomized Trial in Postprandial Functional Dyspepsia: Reassurance and Diagnostic Explanation with or without Traditional Dietary Advice","volume":"36","author":"Buckle","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514004140","article-title":"Patterns of Dietary Behaviours Identified by Latent Class Analysis Are Associated with Chronic Uninvestigated Dyspepsia","volume":"113","author":"Keshteli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"520","article-title":"Eating Patterns in Functional Dyspepsia: A Case Control Study","volume":"50","author":"Cuperus","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.5009\/gnl.2010.4.2.173","article-title":"The Speed of Eating and Functional Dyspepsia in Young Women","volume":"4","author":"Sinn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gut Liver"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.52.9.1271","article-title":"Assessment of Meal Induced Gastric Accommodation by a Satiety Drinking Test in Health and in Severe Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"52","author":"Tack","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2025.06.012","article-title":"Italian Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Functional Dyspepsia\u2014Joint Consensus from the Italian Societies of Gastroenterology and Endoscopy (SIGE), Neurogastroenterology and Motility (SINGEM), Hospital Gastroenterologists and Endoscopists (AIGO), Digestive Endoscopy (SIED) and General Medicine (SIMG)","volume":"57","author":"Sarnelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dig. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v26.i5.456","article-title":"Diet and Functional Dyspepsia: Clinical Correlates and Therapeutic Perspectives","volume":"26","author":"Pesce","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1097\/00042737-199511000-00007","article-title":"Abnormal Sensitivity to Duodenal Lipid Infusion in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"7","author":"Barbera","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"465","article-title":"Fatty Foods and Dyspersia","volume":"2","author":"Taggart","year":"1966","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1097\/00042737-199302000-00009","article-title":"Sensitivity to Nutrients in Patients with Non-Ulcer Dyspepsia","volume":"5","author":"Houghton","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13248","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.13248","article-title":"Effects of Meal Palatability on Postprandial Sensations","volume":"30","author":"Pribic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agah, S., Aminianfar, A., Hassanzadeh Keshteli, A., Bitarafan, V., Adibi, P., Esmaillzadeh, A., and Feinle-Bisset, C. (2022). Association between Dietary Macronutrient Intake and Symptoms in Uninvestigated Dyspepsia: Evidence from a Population-Based, Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14132577"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2008.09.007","article-title":"Relationship between Symptoms and Dietary Patterns in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"7","author":"Pilichiewicz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volta, U., Bardella, M.T., Calabr\u00f2, A., Troncone, R., and Corazza, G.R. (2014). Study Group for Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity An Italian Prospective Multicenter Survey on Patients Suspected of Having Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity. BMC Med., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-12-85"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1038\/s41395-018-0095-7","article-title":"Wheat Intolerance and Chronic Gastrointestinal Symptoms in an Australian Population-Based Study: Association Between Wheat Sensitivity, Celiac Disease and Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders","volume":"113","author":"Potter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuad034","article-title":"Effects of Gluten on Dyspeptic Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials","volume":"82","author":"Hosseinian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Potter, M.D.E., Duncanson, K., Jones, M.P., Walker, M.M., Keely, S., and Talley, N.J. (2020). Wheat Sensitivity and Functional Dyspepsia: A Pilot, Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Dietary Crossover Trial with Novel Challenge Protocol. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12071947"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"97","article-title":"Food and Nutrient Intakes and Eating Patterns in Functional and Organic Dyspepsia","volume":"48","author":"Mullan","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-008-0698-8","article-title":"Food Intolerance, Diet Composition, and Eating Patterns in Functional Dyspepsia Patients","volume":"55","author":"Carvalho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1002\/ueg2.12061","article-title":"United European Gastroenterology (UEG) and European Society for Neurogastroenterology and Motility (ESNM) Consensus on Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"9","author":"Wauters","year":"2021","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.recesp.2024.01.013","article-title":"Effect of the Mediterranean Diet in Cardiovascular Prevention","volume":"77","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Cardiol. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmab086","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Patterns on Biomarkers of Inflammation and Immune Responses: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"13","author":"Koelman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqac175","article-title":"Short-Chain Fatty Acids Are Key Mediators of the Favorable Effects of the Mediterranean Diet on Intestinal Barrier Integrity: Data from the Randomized Controlled LIBRE Trial","volume":"116","author":"Seethaler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barber, T.M., Kabisch, S., Pfeiffer, A.F.H., and Weickert, M.O. (2023). The Effects of the Mediterranean Diet on Health and Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092150"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s41043-025-00884-5","article-title":"Effect of Dietary Patterns on Functional Dyspepsia in Adults: A Systematic Review","volume":"44","author":"Ashoorion","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Health Popul. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2025.02.048","article-title":"The Exclusion Diet Conundrum: Are We Separating the Wheat from the Chaff?","volume":"169","author":"Bruaene","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertin, L., Zanconato, M., Crepaldi, M., Marasco, G., Cremon, C., Barbara, G., Barberio, B., Zingone, F., and Savarino, E.V. (2024). The Role of the FODMAP Diet in IBS. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16030370"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.70533","article-title":"Letter: Rifaximin Versus Low FODMAP Diet in IBS: What the Primary Endpoint Does Not Tell Us","volume":"63","author":"Bertin","year":"2026","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-325214","article-title":"Efficacy of a Low FODMAP Diet in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis","volume":"71","author":"Black","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"57","article-title":"Outcome of a FODMAP Restriction Diet with Subsequent Blinded Reintroduction in Functional Dyspepsia\/Postprandial Distress Syndrome","volume":"75","author":"Broeders","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14684","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14684","article-title":"Association between Dietary Factors, Symptoms, and Psychological Factors in Adults with Dyspepsia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"35","author":"Cooke","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1111\/jhn.12506","article-title":"Food and Functional Dyspepsia: A Systematic Review","volume":"31","author":"Duncanson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hum. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.15694","article-title":"Low Fermentable Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides, and Polyols Diet versus Traditional Dietary Advice for Functional Dyspepsia: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"37","author":"Goyal","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shiha, M.G., Buckle, R.L., Shaw, C.C., and Aziz, I. (2026). Low Fermentable Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides, and Polyols Diet vs Traditional Dietary Advice in Postprandial Functional Dyspepsia: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., Online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2026.06.006"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14148","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14148","article-title":"Epigastric Symptom Response to Low FODMAP Dietary Advice Compared with Standard Dietetic Advice in Individuals with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"33","author":"Staudacher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.12306","article-title":"Fructose and Lactose Intolerance and Malabsorption Testing: The Relationship with Symptoms in Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders","volume":"37","author":"Materna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2024.02.008","article-title":"Efficacy and Findings of a Blinded Randomized Reintroduction Phase for the Low FODMAP Diet in Irritable Bowel Syndrome","volume":"167","author":"Colomier","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59532-z","article-title":"Prevalence of Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity in Patients with Refractory Functional Dyspepsia: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo Controlled Trial","volume":"10","author":"Shahbazkhani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0000000000003046","article-title":"Prevalence and Predictors of Nonceliac Wheat Sensitivity in Refractory Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Functional Dyspepsia: Results from a Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study","volume":"37","author":"Goyal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2016.08.017","article-title":"Alterations in Diets of Patients With Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity Compared with Healthy Individuals","volume":"15","author":"Zingone","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2013.04.022","article-title":"Gliadin Does Not Induce Mucosal Inflammation or Basophil Activation in Patients with Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity","volume":"11","author":"Bucci","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2025.02.002","article-title":"Vegetarian Dietary Patterns for Adults: A Position Paper of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics","volume":"125","author":"Raj","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000000283","article-title":"Effects of the DASH Diet and Sodium Intake on Bloating: Results From the DASH-Sodium Trial","volume":"114","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00122","DOI":"10.14309\/ctg.0000000000000122","article-title":"Effects of High-Fiber Diets and Macronutrient Substitution on Bloating: Findings from the OmniHeart Trial","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14129","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14129","article-title":"The Relationship between Fruit and Vegetable Intake with Functional Dyspepsia in Adults","volume":"33","author":"Tabibian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxab128","article-title":"Higher Carbohydrate Amount and Lower Glycemic Index Increase Hunger, Diet Satisfaction, and Heartburn in Overweight and Obese Adults in the OmniCarb Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"151","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1080\/14728222.2020.1752181","article-title":"Duodenal Inflammation: An Emerging Target for Functional Dyspepsia?","volume":"24","author":"Wauters","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert. Opin. Ther. Targets"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2020.11.035","article-title":"Intake and Adequacy of the Vegan Diet. A Systematic Review of the Evidence","volume":"40","author":"Bakaloudi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duncanson, K., Burns, G., Pryor, J., Keely, S., and Talley, N.J. (2021). Mechanisms of Food-Induced Symptom Induction and Dietary Management in Functional Dyspepsia. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041109"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980017000234","article-title":"The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA Food Classification and the Trouble with Ultra-Processing","volume":"21","author":"Monteiro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980018003762","article-title":"Ultra-Processed Foods: What They Are and How to Identify Them","volume":"22","author":"Monteiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12199","article-title":"Unhealthy Dietary Behavior in Refractory Functional Dyspepsia: A Multicenter Prospective Investigation in China","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-024-00893-5","article-title":"Ultra-Processed Foods and Food Additives in Gut Health and Disease","volume":"21","author":"Whelan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.5152\/tjg.2022.21502","article-title":"Investigation of Eating Habits in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"33","author":"Karakoyun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Turk. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"19","article-title":"The Role of Diet in the Management of Non-Ulcer Dyspepsia","volume":"7","author":"Aghaei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Middle East J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.3109\/00365521.2016.1164238","article-title":"Nutritional Habits in Functional Dyspepsia and Its Subgroups: A Comparative Study","volume":"51","author":"Dikmen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.5152\/tjg.2015.150238","article-title":"The Role of Diet in the Overlap between Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"27","author":"Chirila","year":"2016","journal-title":"Turk. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1038\/s41395-018-0137-1","article-title":"Association Between Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: Results from the French NutriNet-Sant\u00e9 Cohort","volume":"113","author":"Schnabel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duboc, H., Latrache, S., Nebunu, N., and Coffin, B. (2020). The Role of Diet in Functional Dyspepsia Management. Front. Psychiatry, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00023"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01540424","article-title":"Environmental Factors and Chronic Unexplained Dyspepsia. Association with Acetaminophen but Not Other Analgesics, Alcohol, Coffee, Tea, or Smoking","volume":"33","author":"Talley","year":"1988","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"524","article-title":"Smoking, Alcohol, and Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Outpatients with Functional Dyspepsia and among Dyspepsia Subgroups","volume":"89","author":"Talley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2006.00815.x","article-title":"Influence of Alcohol Consumption on IBS and Dyspepsia","volume":"18","author":"Halder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01728198","article-title":"Food Intolerance in Duodenal Ulcer Patients, Non Ulcer Dyspeptic Patients and Healthy Subjects. A Prospective Study","volume":"66","author":"Kaess","year":"1988","journal-title":"Klin. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2011.01.012","article-title":"Laboratory Parameters and Nutritional Status in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"22","author":"Randjelovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"1339","article-title":"Comparison of Coffee Intake and Coffee-Induced Symptoms in Patients with Duodenal Ulcer, Nonulcer Dyspepsia, and Normal Controls","volume":"85","author":"Elta","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2020.10.009","article-title":"Effects of a Non-Caffeinated Coffee Substitute on Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"41","author":"Correia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.12841","article-title":"A Prospective Study on Symptom Generation According to Spicy Food Intake and TRPV1 Genotypes in Functional Dyspepsia Patients","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2007.00997.x","article-title":"Hypersensitivity for Capsaicin in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"20","author":"Hammer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"918-e397","article-title":"A Placebo-Controlled Trial of an Oral Capsaicin Load in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"23","author":"Vogelsang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0b013e3181b5745e","article-title":"Homozygous TRPV1 315C Influences the Susceptibility to Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"44","author":"Tahara","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12308","article-title":"Relationship between Spicy Food Intake and Chronic Uninvestigated Dyspepsia in Iranian Adults","volume":"17","author":"Saneei","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1007\/s11596-014-1357-2","article-title":"Offshore Training in Navy Personnel Is Associated with Uninvestigated Dyspepsia","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200203213461219","article-title":"Red Pepper and Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"346","author":"Bortolotti","year":"2002","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"2085","article-title":"Effect of an Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Enriched with Probiotics or Antioxidants on Functional Dyspepsia: A Pilot Study","volume":"17","author":"Ianiro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.4166\/kjg.2025.039","article-title":"Self-Reported Food Triggers and Food Fears Impact Nutrient Intake and Quality of Life in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"85","author":"Goyal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Korean J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2006.00816.x","article-title":"Relationship between Upper Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Changes in Body Weight in a Population-Based Cohort","volume":"18","author":"Cremonini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2003.11.007","article-title":"Independent Influences of Body Mass and Gastric Volumes on Satiation in Humans","volume":"126","author":"Cremonini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13143","article-title":"Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders in 35,447 Adults and Their Association with Body Mass Index","volume":"41","author":"Bouchoucha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2014.01.012","article-title":"Involuntary Weight Loss","volume":"98","author":"Wong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.2003.50155","article-title":"Heterogeneity of Symptom Pattern, Psychosocial Factors, and Pathophysiological Mechanisms in Severe Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"124","author":"Fischler","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29\u201335, e4-5","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2008.01240.x","article-title":"Symptom Pattern and Pathophysiological Correlates of Weight Loss in Tertiary-Referred Functional Dyspepsia","volume":"22","author":"Tack","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22462","article-title":"Gastrointestinal Complications Associated with Anorexia Nervosa: A Systematic Review","volume":"49","author":"Norris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5260","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v22.i22.5260","article-title":"Beneficial Effects of Antidepressant Mirtazapine in Functional Dyspepsia Patients with Weight Loss","volume":"22","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2015.09.043","article-title":"Efficacy of Mirtazapine in Patients with Functional Dyspepsia and Weight Loss","volume":"14","author":"Tack","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17562848241311129","DOI":"10.1177\/17562848241311129","article-title":"Randomized Clinical Trial: The Effects of Mirtazapine in Functional Dyspepsia Patients","volume":"18","author":"Cao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_155","unstructured":"National Collaborating Centre for Acute Care (UK) (2006). Nutrition Support for Adults: Oral Nutrition Support, Enteral Tube Feeding and Parenteral Nutrition, National Collaborating Centre for Acute Care (UK). National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14853","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14853","article-title":"Avoiding the Use of Long-Term Parenteral Support in Patients without Intestinal Failure: A Position Paper from the European Society of Clinical Nutrition & Metabolism, the European Society of Neurogastroenterology and Motility and the Rome Foundation for Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction","volume":"36","author":"Lal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4379","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v18.i32.4379","article-title":"Prevalence of Functional Dyspepsia and Its Subgroups in Patients with Eating Disorders","volume":"18","author":"Santonicola","year":"2012","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14258","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14258","article-title":"Eating Disorder Symptoms, Including Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder, in Patients with Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction","volume":"34","author":"Riddle","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.23414","article-title":"Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction Common among Outpatients with Eating Disorders Including Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder","volume":"54","author":"Murray","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2010.01576.x","article-title":"Appearance and Disappearance of Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders in Patients with Eating Disorders","volume":"22","author":"Boyd","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16293","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i43.16293","article-title":"Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders in Eating Disorder Patients: Altered Distribution and Predictors Using ROME III Compared to ROME II Criteria","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_162","unstructured":"Association, A.P. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5\u00ae), American Psychiatric Publishing."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13931","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.13931","article-title":"Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder Symptoms Are Frequent in Patients Presenting for Symptoms of Gastroparesis","volume":"32","author":"Jehangir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2019.10.030","article-title":"Prevalence and Characteristics of Avoidant\/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder in Adult Neurogastroenterology Patients","volume":"18","author":"Murray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/18\/3064\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T12:57:29Z","timestamp":1789995449000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/18\/3064"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"references-count":164,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18183064"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18183064","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]}}}