{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T14:00:38Z","timestamp":1789999238707,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Genomic Medicine","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01qjckx08","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01qjckx08","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Dietary composition reflects the interplay of individual and contextual factors, yet its relationship with socioeconomic\u2013territorial conditions remains insufficiently characterized in large Latin American cities. Methods: We identified empirical dietary patterns among 3439 adults from the cohort in Mexico City and examined their association with the Social Development Index (SDI), a composite area-level measure of socioeconomic\u2013territorial development. Energy-adjusted food-group intakes were analyzed using k-means clustering, and supervised machine-learning models with SHAP-based interpretation were used to characterize pattern membership. Results: Three dietary patterns\u2014Fresh, Mixed, and Refined\u2014were identified along a continuous dietary gradient primarily differentiated by the relative contribution of fruits and vegetables. SHAP analysis showed that the Fresh pattern was characterized mainly by female sex and older age, the Refined pattern by greater contributions from physical activity, cardiometabolic markers, male sex, and lower SDI values, whereas the Mixed pattern was distinguished primarily by cardiometabolic variables, alcohol intake, and durable-goods ownership. Dietary pattern membership was significantly associated with SDI stratum (\u03c72=40.77,\u00a0p&lt;0.001), although the effect size was small (Cram\u00e9r\u2019s V = 0.078). The proportion of participants classified in the Fresh pattern increased from 35.7% in the lowest SDI stratum to 51.9% in the highest, whereas the Refined pattern decreased from 44.6% to 34.0%. Supervised models showed limited discriminatory performance (balanced accuracy \u2248 0.40), indicating substantial overlap among patterns despite their distinct multivariable profiles. Conclusions: These findings indicate that dietary variation in this urban population is better represented as a continuum than as sharply separated dietary phenotypes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18183100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T12:50:03Z","timestamp":1789995003000},"page":"3100","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Dietary Patterns and the Social Development Index in Mexico City: A Machine-Learning Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2876-8500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mireya","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, National Institute of Cardiology Ignacio Ch\u00e1vez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico"},{"name":"Department of Dental Public Health, Graduate Studies and Research Division, School of Dentistry, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Mexico City 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0090-2701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guadalupe","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Esparza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201dResearcher for Mexico\u201d Program Under SECIHTI, Secretariat of Sciences, Humanities, Technology, and Innovation, Mexico City 08400, Mexico"},{"name":"Diagnostic and Treatment Services, National Institute of Cardiology Ignacio Ch\u00e1vez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6982-3756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda del Carmen Gonz\u00e1lez","family":"Salazar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition, Ambulatory Care Services, National Institute of Cardiology Ignacio Ch\u00e1vez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6258-5732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis M.","family":"Amezcua-Guerra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, National Institute of Cardiology Ignacio Ch\u00e1vez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1872-1397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrique","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Lemus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computational Genomics Division, National Institute of Genomic Medicine, Mexico City 14610, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/00041433-200202000-00002","article-title":"Dietary pattern analysis: A new direction in nutritional epidemiology","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., and Sun, Y. (2024). Dietary Patterns, Food Intake and Health: New Evidence from Epidemiological and Genetic Studies. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16070919"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114524002587","article-title":"Advances in methods for characterising dietary patterns: A scoping review","volume":"133","author":"Hutchinson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-021-00692-7","article-title":"A review of statistical methods for dietary pattern analysis","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4115","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-021-02545-9","article-title":"Advances in dietary pattern analysis in nutritional epidemiology","volume":"60","author":"Schulz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"7159216","article-title":"Dietary patterns and fitness level in Mexican teenagers","volume":"2018","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bardagjy, A.S., and Steinberg, F.M. (2019). Relationship between HDL functional characteristics and cardiovascular health and potential impact of dietary patterns: A narrative review. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11061231"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2019.03.013","article-title":"Dietary patterns and lifestyle characteristics in adults: Results from the Hellenic National Nutrition and Health Survey (HNNHS)","volume":"171","author":"Karageorgou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Consavage Stanley, K., Hedrick, V.E., Serrano, E., Holz, A., and Kraak, V.I. (2023). US adults\u2019 perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors towards plant-rich dietary patterns and practices: International food information council food and health survey insights, 2012\u20132022. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15234990"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandri, E., Sguanci, M., Cant\u00edn Larumbe, E., Cerd\u00e1 Olmedo, G., Werner, L.U., Piredda, M., and Mancin, S. (2024). Plant-based diets versus the Mediterranean dietary pattern and their socio-demographic determinants in the Spanish population: Influence on health and lifestyle habits. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16091278"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2010.10.012","article-title":"Dietary patterns and survival of older adults","volume":"111","author":"Anderson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wingrove, K., Lawrence, M.A., and McNaughton, S.A. (2022). A systematic review of the methods used to assess and report dietary patterns. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.892351"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y.H., Hsu, H.C., Bai, C.H., and Wu, W.C. (2022). Dietary patterns among older people and the associations with social environment and individual factors in Taiwan: A multilevel analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19073982"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Q., Liu, Z., Hu, W., Chen, X., Li, J., Wan, Q., Zhao, J., Ruan, Y., Dao, B., and Li, Y. (2021). Social capital and dietary patterns in three ethnic minority groups native to Yunnan Province, Southwest China. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256078"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/nhs.12643","article-title":"Association between dietary patterns and sociodemographics: A cross-sectional study of Australian nursing students","volume":"22","author":"Williams","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nurs. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, R.M., Moore, J.A., Griffiths, A.R., Cousins, A.L., and Young, H.A. (2025). Unveiling Dietary Complexity: A Scoping Review and Reporting Guidance for Network Analysis in Dietary Pattern Research. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202508.0362.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"World Bank (2026, May 28). Mexico: Overview. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/ext\/en\/country\/mexico#tab-about."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"231","article-title":"The nutrition transition and the double burden of malnutrition: Changes in dietary patterns 1961-2009 in the Mexican socioeconomic context","volume":"64","author":"Silberman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Latinoam. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2394","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980018001167","article-title":"The nutrition transition in Mexico 1988\u20132016: The role of wealth in the social patterning of obesity by education","volume":"21","author":"McMunn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estad\u00edstica y Geograf\u00eda (INEGI) (2026, May 28). Censo de Poblaci\u00f3n y Vivienda 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.inegi.org.mx\/programas\/ccpv\/2020\/#resultados_generales."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Johnston, M. (2026, May 28). List of the World\u2019s Largest Cities by Population. 2026. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Available online: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/list-of-the-worlds-largest-cities-by-population."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2015.05.003","article-title":"The social distribution of dietary patterns. Traditional, modern and healthy eating among women in a Latin American city","volume":"92","author":"Bojorquez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.21149\/8803","article-title":"Consumo de grupos de alimentos y factores sociodemogr\u00e1ficos en poblaci\u00f3n mexicana","volume":"60","year":"2018","journal-title":"Salud P\u00fablica M\u00e9xico"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roggema, R., Krstikj, A., and Flores, B. (2024). Spatial barriers to transforming toward a healthy food system in the Noreste of Mexico. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16091259"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-020-00568-2","article-title":"Trends in the dietary patterns of Mexican adults by sociodemographic characteristics","volume":"19","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guibrunet, L., Ortega-Avila, A.G., Arn\u00e9s, E., and Mora Ardila, F. (2023). Socioeconomic, demographic and geographic determinants of food consumption in Mexico. PLoS ONE, 18, Correction in PLoS ONE\u00a02024, 19, e0306437.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0306437"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"64","article-title":"\u00cdndice de desarrollo social de la Ciudad de M\u00e9xico como herramienta de focalizaci\u00f3n de la pol\u00edtica social","volume":"12","author":"Raccanello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Retos Dir."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda, M., Guti\u00e9rrez-Esparza, G.O., Roblero-Godinez, J.C., Mar\u00edn-P\u00e9rez, D.V., Montes-Ruiz, C.L., Vallejo, M., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Lemus, E. (2021). Cardiovascular risk factors and social development index. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.631747"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda, M., Rodr\u00edguez-Hern\u00e1ndez, A.P., Guti\u00e9rrez-Esparza, G.O., Castrej\u00f3n-P\u00e9rez, R.C., Hern\u00e1ndez-Lemus, E., and Borges-Y\u00e1\u00f1ez, S.A. (2023). Relationship between the social development index and self-reported periodontal conditions. Healthcare, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare11111548"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Esparza, G., Martinez-Garcia, M., Ram\u00edrez-delReal, T., Groves-Miralrio, L.E., Marquez, M.F., Pulido, T., Amezcua-Guerra, L.M., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Lemus, E. (2024). Sleep quality, nutrient intake, and social development index predict metabolic syndrome in the Tlalpan 2020 cohort: A machine learning and synthetic data study. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202401.0875.v1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e016773","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-016773","article-title":"Protocol for a prospective longitudinal study of risk factors for hypertension incidence in a Mexico City population: The Tlalpan 2020 cohort","volume":"7","author":"Madero","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Esparza, G., Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda, M., Amezcua-Guerra, L.M., Montes Rivera, M., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Lemus, E. (2026). Explainable and interpretable models for predicting early-onset hypertension in the Tlalpan 2020 cohort. Front. Digit. Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2026.1805107"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.21149\/spm.v58i6.7862","article-title":"Validity of a food frequency questionnaire to assess food intake in Mexican adolescent and adult population","volume":"58","year":"2016","journal-title":"Salud P\u00fablica M\u00e9xico"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Avila, J., Gonz\u00e1lez-Avil\u00e9s, L., and Rosales-Mendoza, E. (2003). Manual de usuario. SNUT Sistema de Evaluaci\u00f3n de H\u00e1bitos Nutricionales y Consumo de Nutrimentos, Instituto Nacional de Salud P\u00fablica."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lizaur, A.B.P., Laborde, L.M., and Gonz\u00e1lez, B.P. (2014). Sistema Mexicano de Alimentos Equivalentes, Fomento de Nutrici\u00f3n y Salud."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Shamah-Levy, T., Villalpando-Hern\u00e1ndez, S., and Rivera-Dommarco, J. (2006). Manual de Procedimientos para Proyectos de Nutrici\u00f3n, Instituto Nacional de Salud P\u00fablica."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-36341998000200005","article-title":"Validity and reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire to assess dietary intake of women living in Mexico City","volume":"40","author":"Romieu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Salud Publica Mex."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"EVALUA-DF (2011). Metodolog\u00eda para la construcci\u00f3n del \u00cdndice de Desarrollo Social de Unidades territoriales del Distrito Federal. \u00cdndice del Desarrollo Social de las Unidades Territoriales del Distrito Federal, Delegaci\u00f3n, Colonia y Manzana 2011, Consejo de Evaluaci\u00f3n del Desarrollo Social del Distrito Federal, Gobierno del Distrito Federal. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2021.101430","article-title":"Association between diet and sleep quality: A systematic review","volume":"57","author":"Godos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s41606-023-00090-4","article-title":"The effect of nutrition and physical activity on sleep quality among adults: A scoping review","volume":"7","author":"Alruwaili","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sleep Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/bjhp.12355","article-title":"Bidirectional relationship of stress and affect with physical activity and healthy eating","volume":"24","author":"Schultchen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jhh.1001607","article-title":"Dietary intake in male and female smokers, ex-smokers, and never smokers: The INTERMAP study","volume":"17","author":"Dyer","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Hum. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tokgozoglu, L., Hekimsoy, V., Costabile, G., Calabrese, I., and Riccardi, G. (2020). Diet, lifestyle, smoking. Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerosis: Improving State-of-the-Art Management and Search for Novel Targets, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/164_2020_353"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB","article-title":"International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity","volume":"35","author":"Craig","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2008.06.003","article-title":"Psychometric evaluation and tests of validity of the Medical Outcomes Study 12-item Sleep Scale (MOS sleep)","volume":"10","author":"Allen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.21149\/15654","article-title":"Gender assessment of sleep disorders in an adult urban population of Mexico City","volume":"66","year":"2024","journal-title":"Salud P\u00fablica M\u00e9xico"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amezcua-Guerra, L.M., Vel\u00e1zquez-Espinosa, K.P., Pi\u00f1a-Soto, L.A., Guti\u00e9rrez-Esparza, G.O., Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda, M., and Brianza-Padilla, M. (2024). The Self-Reported Quality of Sleep and Its Relationship with the Development of Arterial Hypertension: Perspectives from the Tlalpan 2020 Cohort. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13206089"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijchp.2017.07.003","article-title":"Short form of the Spanish adaptation of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory","volume":"17","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2","article-title":"Seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure","volume":"42","author":"Chobanian","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665112000729","article-title":"The use of cluster analysis to derive dietary patterns: Methodological considerations, reproducibility, validity and the effect of energy mis-reporting","volume":"71","author":"Devlin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114508014128","article-title":"Comparison of cluster and principal component analysis techniques to derive dietary patterns in Irish adults","volume":"101","author":"Hearty","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F.T., Ting, K.M., and Zhou, Z.H. (2008, January 15\u201319). Isolation Forest. Proceedings of the 2008 Eighth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDM.2008.17"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0377-0427(87)90125-7","article-title":"Silhouettes: A graphical aid to the interpretation and validation of cluster analysis","volume":"20","author":"Rousseeuw","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Comput. Appl. Math."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1979.4766909","article-title":"A cluster separation measure","volume":"PAMI-1","author":"Davies","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/03610927408827101","article-title":"A dendrite method for cluster analysis","volume":"3","author":"Calinski","year":"1974","journal-title":"Commun. Stat."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brodersen, K.H., Ong, C.S., Stephan, K.E., and Buhmann, J.M. (2010, January 23\u201326). The balanced accuracy and its posterior distribution. Proceedings of the 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPR.2010.764"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"He, H., Bai, Y., Garcia, E.A., and Li, S. (2008, January 1\u20138). ADASYN: Adaptive synthetic sampling approach for imbalanced learning. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence), Hong Kong."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Lundberg, S.M., and Lee, S.I. (2017, January 4\u20139). A unified approach to interpreting model predictions. Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cram\u00e9r, H. (1946). Mathematical Methods of Statistics, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400883868"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brambila-Tapia, A.J.L., Gonz\u00e1lez-G\u00f3mez, A.S., Carrillo-Delgadillo, L.A., Salda\u00f1a-Cruz, A.M., and D\u00e1valos-Rodr\u00edguez, I.P. (2024). Sex differences in biochemical analyses, cardiometabolic risk factors and their correlation with CRP in healthy Mexican individuals. J. Pers. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14090904"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"k2396","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k2396","article-title":"Food based dietary patterns and chronic disease prevention","volume":"361","author":"Schulze","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2004.tb00040.x","article-title":"Empirically derived eating patterns using factor or cluster analysis: A review","volume":"62","author":"Newby","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-12-158","article-title":"The metabolic signature associated with the Western dietary pattern: A cross-sectional study","volume":"12","author":"Rudkowska","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendez, I., Fasano, M.V., Guajardo, V., Zonis, L., and Kovalskys, I. (2022). Dietary patterns in the Argentinian population and their association with sociodemographic characteristics: Results from the ELANS study (2014\u20132015). Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.778390"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2008.01.007","article-title":"Fruits and vegetables availability for human consumption in Latin American and Caribbean countries: Patterns and determinants","volume":"33","author":"Asfaw","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Policy"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.110.132332","article-title":"Dietary patterns are associated with different indexes of adiposity and obesity in an urban Mexican population","volume":"141","author":"Talavera","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z\u00e1rate-Ortiz, A.G., Melse-Boonstra, A., Rodr\u00edguez-Ram\u00edrez, S., Hern\u00e1ndez-Cordero, S., and Feskens, E.J. (2019). Dietary patterns and the double burden of malnutrition in Mexican adolescents: Results from ENSANUT-2006. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11112753"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Artegoitia, V.M., Krishnan, S., Bonnel, E.L., Stephensen, C.B., Keim, N.L., and Newman, J.W. (2021). Healthy eating index patterns in adults by sex and age predict cardiometabolic risk factors in a cross-sectional study. BMC Nutr., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40795-021-00432-4"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"86","article-title":"Dietary patterns and their association with obesity: A cross-sectional study","volume":"15","author":"Roman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Facina, V.B., Fonseca, R.d.R., Concei\u00e7\u00e3o-Machado, M.E.P., Ribeiro-Silva, R.d.C., dos Santos, S.M.C., and de Santana, M.L.P. (2023). Association between Socioeconomic Factors, Food Insecurity, and Dietary Patterns of Adolescents: A Latent Class Analysis. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15204344"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, Z.Y., Wei, Y.F., Sun, Y.H., and Ji, W.P. (2024). Dietary pattern and risk of hyperuricemia: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Front. Nutr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2024.1218912"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-018-0389-z","article-title":"Dietary patterns are associated with blood lipids at 18-year-olds: A cross-sectional analysis nested in the 1993 Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort","volume":"17","author":"Vaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.3128","article-title":"The \u201cfruit and whole-grain\u201d pattern is associated with a low prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia among middle and older-aged Korean adults: Using Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013\u20132018 data","volume":"11","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.5.1107","article-title":"Does social class predict diet quality?","volume":"87","author":"Darmon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.089029","article-title":"Socioeconomic determinants of dietary patterns in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review","volume":"100","author":"Mayen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2451837","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.51837","article-title":"Socioeconomic status, diet, and behavioral factors and cardiometabolic diseases and mortality","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1080\/07352166.2023.2276778","article-title":"Evaluating the availability, accessibility, and affordability of fresh food in informal food environments in five Mexican cities","volume":"47","author":"Krstikj","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Urban Aff."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5577","DOI":"10.1017\/S136898002100330X","article-title":"Availability, variety and distribution of healthy and unhealthy foods and beverages sold at street food stands in Mexico City","volume":"24","author":"Chavez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Guerra, A.I., L\u00f3pez-Olmedo, N., Medina, C., Hern\u00e1ndez-Alcaraz, C., Ortega-Avila, A.G., and Barquera, S. (2022). Association between density of convenience and small grocery stores with diet quality in adults living in Mexico City: A cross sectional study. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.857754"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pineda, E., Barbosa Cunha, D., Taghavi Azar Sharabiani, M., and Millett, C. (2023). Association of the retail food environment, BMI, dietary patterns, and socioeconomic position in urban areas of Mexico. PLoS Glob. Public Health, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0001069"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oviedo-Sol\u00eds, C.I., Hern\u00e1ndez-Alcaraz, C., S\u00e1nchez-Ort\u00edz, N.A., L\u00f3pez-Olmedo, N., Ju\u00e1regui, A., and Barquera, S. (2022). Association of sociodemographic and lifestyle factors with dietary patterns among men and women living in Mexico City: A cross-sectional study. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.859132"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980019004294","article-title":"Relationship between different levels of the Mexican food environment and dietary intake: A qualitative systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Chavez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2019.05.007","article-title":"Prevalence and determinants of misreporting of energy intake among Latin American populations: Results from ELANS study","volume":"68","author":"Previdelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vega-Salas, M.J., Curi-Quinto, K., Hidalgo-Ar\u00e9stegui, A., Meza-Carbajal, K., Lago-Berrocal, N., Arias, L., Favara, M., Penny, M., S\u00e1nchez, A., and Vimaleswaran, K.S. (2022). Development of an online food frequency questionnaire and estimation of misreporting of energy intake during the COVID-19 pandemic among young adults in Peru. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.949330"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/18\/3100\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T13:06:42Z","timestamp":1789996002000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/18\/3100"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18183100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18183100","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]}}}