{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T12:04:07Z","timestamp":1790597047761,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790380800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease are rising in South Asia, with poor diet a major contributor. Most dietary apps are designed for Western foods and struggle with culturally diverse dishes such as Pakistani cuisine. Objective: This study aimed to build a machine learning-based system that can recognise Pakistani dishes, estimate portion sizes, and calculate their nutritional value. Methods: We developed a multi-stage automated dietary assessment pipeline for Pakistani cuisine using a multi-source dataset covering 83 dish classes across 10 categories. Following data cleaning, class balancing, and targeted augmentation, deep learning architectures were evaluated for food classification and segmentation. ResNet-50, MobileNetV2, and YOLOv8 were used for food recognition, while YOLOv8-Seg and Mask R-CNN enabled pixel-level segmentation for portion and nutrient estimation. All models were optimized using transfer learning and evaluated using standard classification and mask-quality metrics, followed by mobile application usability testing. Results: A multi-source dataset of ten categories and 83 Pakistani dishes was used to train and compare deep learning models for food classification and segmentation. Portion size was estimated using a segmentation- and depth-based approach without a reference object, while nutritional values were derived from standardised recipes and established food databases. The models were integrated into a mobile application for usability testing. YOLO-based models achieved the best balance of accuracy and speed for real-time classification and segmentation. Portion estimates were reasonably close to measured values, and usability testing showed the app was easy to use, with minor improvements suggested. Conclusions: Overall, this work demonstrates the feasibility of an AI-based dietary assessment system adapted to Pakistani cuisine, with future work focused on reducing processing demands and improving depth-based portion estimation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18193173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T11:35:59Z","timestamp":1790595359000},"page":"3173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Developing a Machine Learning\u2013Based System for Nutrient Profiling of Pakistani Cuisine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Alishba Umer","family":"Farooq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, The University of Punjab, Lahore P.O. Box 54590, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Fiza","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, The University of Punjab, Lahore P.O. Box 54590, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Huda","family":"Ijaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, The University of Punjab, Lahore P.O. Box 54590, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1811-5207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Usman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pakistan Scientific and Technological Information Center, Islamabad P.O. Box 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Nimra","family":"Saleem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"APPNA Institute of Public Health, Jinnah Sindh Medical University, Karachi P.O. Box 75510, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Shuja ur Rehman","family":"Baig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, The University of Punjab, Lahore P.O. Box 54590, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7827-0612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Farooq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, The University of Punjab, Lahore P.O. Box 54590, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Syed Mustafa","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Informatics, Imaging and Data Science, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)30041-8","article-title":"Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990\u20132017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"393","author":"Afshin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.26719\/emhj.22.083","article-title":"Burden of noncommunicable diseases in Pakistan","volume":"28","author":"Kazmi","year":"2022","journal-title":"East Mediterr. 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