{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T04:47:14Z","timestamp":1791953234218,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Atlantic Technological University","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0458dap48","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0458dap48","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFA) are recognised for their roles in cardiovascular and brain health, with emerging evidence suggesting potential benefits for athletic performance and recovery. However, dietary intake and biological status of n-3PUFA remain poorly understood in athletes from intermittent team sports in Ireland, such as Gaelic football players. Through combining self-reported intake and biological assessment, this study provides, to our knowledge, the first comprehensive characterisation of n-3PUFA intake, supplementation practices, barriers to intake and biological status in this population. Methods: Players from nine intercounty Gaelic football teams (n = 76, 24.7 \u00b1 3.2 years) completed a validated food frequency questionnaire to assess dietary n-3PUFA intake. A subgroup of participants (n = 20, 25.6 \u00b1 3.5 years, 88.5 \u00b1 5.7 kg) completed dry blood spot sampling to determine their Omega-3 Index (O3i). Results: A total of 63% (n = 48) of participants met or exceeded the European Food Safety Authority Adequate Intake (AI) of 250\u2013500 mg\/day for EPA+DHA. Supplement users were significantly more likely to meet or exceed the AI compared with non-users (89.7% vs. 35.1%; p &lt; 0.001). In the subgroup assessed, the mean O3i was 6.06 \u00b1 0.93%, with no participant achieving an O3i of \u22658%. Dietary intake was not significantly correlated with O3i (\u03c1 = \u22120.09, 95% CI [\u22120.51, 0.37]), however, this analysis was likely underpowered due to the small subsample assessed. Barriers to fish consumption included sensory factors (29%), cooking ability (23%) and a lack of knowledge on n-3PUFA (20%). Conclusions: The subsample assessed (n = 20) had an O3i below the cardioprotective threshold of 8%, however, implications for performance or recovery remain unclear. Given the cross-sectional design and small biomarker sample, intake-status findings should be interpreted as descriptive. Targeted interventions addressing both intake and supplementation practices may be needed to improve n-3PUFA intake and status in this population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18193261","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:39:34Z","timestamp":1790948374000},"page":"3261","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Dietary Omega-3 Intake, Supplement Use and Omega-3 Status in Elite (Tier 3) Male Gaelic Football Players: A Cross-Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1309-9702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark","family":"Flanagan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK"},{"name":"School of Health, Sport Science and Nutrition, Atlantic Technological University, H91 T8NW Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5505-7130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisa","family":"Ryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health, Sport Science and Nutrition, Atlantic Technological University, H91 T8NW Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000001309","article-title":"Positional Match Running Performance in Elite Gaelic Football","volume":"30","author":"Malone","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000001477","article-title":"The Running Performance Profile of Elite Gaelic Football Match-Play","volume":"31","author":"Malone","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000002071","article-title":"Positional Anthropometric and Performance Profile of Elite Gaelic Football Players","volume":"32","author":"Shovlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daly, L.S., Cath\u00e1in, C.\u00d3., and Kelly, D.T. (2020). Gaelic Football Match-Play: Performance Attenuation and Timeline of Recovery. Sports, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports8120166"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1177\/1012690215618672","article-title":"Wearing Their Chains Willingly: Athlete Burnout and the Case of Adolescent Gaelic Footballers in Ireland","volume":"52","author":"Hughes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4895","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.4895","article-title":"Time to Get Our Four Priorities Right: An 8-Year Prospective Investigation of 1326 Player-Seasons to Identify the Frequency, Nature, and Burden of Time-Loss Injuries in Elite Gaelic Football","volume":"6","author":"Roe","year":"2018","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2018-099577","article-title":"Epidemiology of Injuries in Professional Football: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"54","author":"Myer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-021-01603-w","article-title":"Injuries in Elite Men\u2019s Rugby Union: An Updated (2012\u20132020) Meta-Analysis of 11,620 Match and Training Injuries","volume":"52","author":"Williams","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2161","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2024.2313834","article-title":"Epidemiology of Time-Loss Injuries within an Australian Male Professional Football Club: A 5-Year Prospective Observational Study of 21,343 Player Hours","volume":"41","author":"Adams","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11332-022-01015-x","article-title":"Applied Sport Science of Gaelic Football","volume":"19","author":"Boyle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sport Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.2147\/OAJSM.S33605","article-title":"Role of Nutrition in Performance Enhancement and Postexercise Recovery","volume":"6","author":"Beck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Open Access J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cath\u00e1in, C.\u00d3., Fleming, J., Renard, M., and Kelly, D.T. (2020). Dietary Intake of Gaelic Football Players during Game Preparation and Recovery. Sports, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports8050062"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-020-02341-x","article-title":"An Investigation of Dietary Intake, Nutrition Knowledge and Hydration Status of Gaelic Football Players","volume":"60","author":"McCrink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Brien, L., Collins, K., and Amirabdollhian, F. (2021). Exploring Sports Nutrition Knowledge in Elite Gaelic Footballers. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041081"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2004.02.030","article-title":"The Omega-3 Index: A New Risk Factor for Death from Coronary Heart Disease?","volume":"39","author":"Harris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/15438627.2018.1550401","article-title":"Applications of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation for Sport Performance","volume":"27","author":"Philpott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2002662","article-title":"Eicosapentaenoic and Docosapentaenoic Acids Are the Principal Products of \u03b1-Linolenic Acid Metabolism in Young Men","volume":"88","author":"Burdge","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.6.1467S","article-title":"Distribution, Interconversion, and Dose Response of N-3 Fatty Acids in Humans","volume":"83","author":"Arterburn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2014.02.003","article-title":"Dietary Omega-6 Fatty Acid Lowering Increases Bioavailability of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Human Plasma Lipid Pools","volume":"90","author":"Taha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2016.07.002","article-title":"Metabolism and Functional Effects of Plant-Derived Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Humans","volume":"64","author":"Baker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-food-111317-095850","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Their Health Benefits","volume":"9","author":"Shahidi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thielecke, F., and Blannin, A. (2020). Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Sport Performance\u2014Are They Equally Beneficial for Athletes and Amateurs? A Narrative Review. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12123712"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2441775","DOI":"10.1080\/15502783.2024.2441775","article-title":"International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Long-Chain Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids","volume":"22","author":"Heileson","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000000875","article-title":"Effect of Docosahexaenoic Acid on a Biomarker of Head Trauma in American Football","volume":"48","author":"Oliver","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-021-00461-1","article-title":"The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on a Biomarker of Head Trauma in NCAA Football Athletes: A Multi-Site, Non-Randomized Study","volume":"18","author":"Heileson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1177\/00099228221101726","article-title":"A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of Docosahexaenoic Acid for the Treatment of Sport-Related Concussion in Adolescents","volume":"61","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2008.01.011","article-title":"DHA-Rich Fish Oil Lowers Heart Rate during Submaximal Exercise in Elite Australian Rules Footballers","volume":"12","author":"Buckley","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2016-0150","article-title":"DHA-Rich Fish Oil Increases the Omega-3 Index and Lowers the Oxygen Cost of Physiologically Stressful Cycling in Trained Individuals","volume":"27","author":"Hingley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blannin, A., Boulton, G., and Thielecke, F. (2025). Six Weeks of Either EPA-Rich or DHA-Rich Omega-3 Supplementation Alters Submaximal Exercise Physiology in Endurance Trained Male Amateurs. Front. Nutr., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1588421"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2012.04374.x","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Inflammatory Processes: Nutrition or Pharmacology?","volume":"75","author":"Calder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2018.1491626","article-title":"Adding Omega-3 Fatty Acids to a Protein-Based Supplement during Pre-Season Training Results in Reduced Muscle Soreness and the Better Maintenance of Explosive Power in Professional Rugby Union Players","volume":"18","author":"Black","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2017-0161","article-title":"Adding Fish Oil to Whey Protein, Leucine, and Carbohydrate Over a Six-Week Supplementation Period Attenuates Muscle Soreness Following Eccentric Exercise in Competitive Soccer Players","volume":"28","author":"Philpott","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-550-19","article-title":"Nutritional Considerations and Strategies to Facilitate Injury Recovery and Rehabilitation","volume":"55","author":"Hirsch","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yaghoobi, E., Pashaei, F., Allsopp, G.L., Retallack, M., Charalambous, N., Snipe, R.M.J., Shaw, C.S., Kowalski, G.M., Bruce, C.R., and Hunter, A.M. (2026). Effects of LC N-3 PUFA Supplementation on Muscle Pain, Function, and Damage Markers in Healthy Young to Middle-Aged Adults Following Acute or Chronic Exercise: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18091447"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4586","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201801857RRR","article-title":"Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Attenuates Skeletal Muscle Disuse Atrophy during Two Weeks of Unilateral Leg Immobilization in Healthy Young Women","volume":"33","author":"Mcglory","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000513","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.113.000513","article-title":"Determinants of Erythrocyte Omega-3 Fatty Acid Content in Response to Fish Oil Supplementation: A Dose\u2013Response Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"2","author":"Flock","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.21767\/2386-5180.1000137","article-title":"Measurement of the Omega-3 Index in Dried Blood Spots","volume":"4","author":"Harris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Lab. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2024.101286","article-title":"Omega-3 World Map: 2024 Update","volume":"95","author":"Schuchardt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2014-0041","article-title":"Low Omega-3 Index in 106 German Elite Winter Endurance Athletes: A Pilot Study","volume":"24","author":"Kemper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2015-0316","article-title":"Associations Between Whole Blood and Dietary Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Levels in Collegiate Athletes","volume":"26","author":"Wilson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-387-18","article-title":"The Omega-3 Index in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Collegiate Football Athletes","volume":"54","author":"Anzalone","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ritz, P.P., Rogers, M.B., Zabinsky, J.S., Hedrick, V.E., Rockwell, J.A., Rimer, E.G., Kostelnik, S.B., Hulver, M.W., and Rockwell, M.S. (2020). Dietary and Biological Assessment of the Omega-3 Status of Collegiate Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Analysis. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.01.27.920991"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Armstrong, A., Anzalone, A.J., Pethick, W., Murray, H., Dahlquist, D.T., Askow, A.T., Heileson, J.L., Hillyer, L.M., Ma, D.W.L., and Oliver, J.M. (2021). An Evaluation of Omega-3 Status and Intake in Canadian Elite Rugby 7s Players. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13113777"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-0549.21","article-title":"Assessing Omega-3 Intake in Sport: The Brief Food Frequency Questionnaire and the Omega-3 Index in Collegiate Women Soccer Players","volume":"57","author":"Essman","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hooks, M.P., Madigan, S.M., Woodside, J.V., and Nugent, A.P. (2023). Dietary Intake, Biological Status, and Barriers towards Omega-3 Intake in Elite Level (Tier 4), Female Athletes: Pilot Study. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15132821"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.36905\/jses.2025.01.02","article-title":"A Cross-Sectional Assessment of the Omega-3 Index in an Australian Cohort of Elite Rugby Football Athletes: Opportunities to Address Nutritional Omega-3 Intake","volume":"9","author":"Peoples","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2019.07.004","article-title":"Degenerative Rotator Cuff Tears Are Associated with a Low Omega-3 Index","volume":"148","author":"Hudek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2021.1998643","article-title":"Omega-3 Index and AA\/EPA Ratio as Biomarkers of Running-Related Injuries: An Observational Study in Recreational Runners","volume":"23","author":"Davinelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000003117","article-title":"The Dose\u2013Response Effect of Docosahexaenoic Acid on the Omega-3 Index in American Football Athletes","volume":"55","author":"Lust","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medoro, A., Buonsenso, A., Centorbi, M., Calcagno, G., Scapagnini, G., Fiorilli, G., and Davinelli, S. (2024). Omega-3 Index as a Sport Biomarker: Implications for Cardiovascular Health, Injury Prevention, and Athletic Performance. J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfmk9020091"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmaa050","article-title":"Are There Benefits from the Use of Fish Oil Supplements in Athletes? A Systematic Review","volume":"11","author":"Lewis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S095442242300001X","article-title":"A Review and Evaluation of Study Design Considerations for Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Trials in Physically Trained Participants","volume":"37","author":"Anthony","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finnegan, E., Daly, E., and Ryan, L. (2024). Nutritional Considerations of Irish Performance Dietitians and Nutritionists in Concussion Injury Management. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16040497"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2021-0451","article-title":"Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework","volume":"17","author":"McKay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2010.10.007","article-title":"Validation of a Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess Intake of N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Subjects with and without Major Depressive Disorder","volume":"111","author":"Sublette","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herter-Aeberli, I., Graf, C., Vollenweider, A., H\u00e4berling, I., Srikanthan, P., Hersberger, M., Berger, G., and Mathis, D. (2019). Validation of a Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess Intake of N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Switzerland. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081863"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520003773","article-title":"A Systematic Review of the Determinants of Seafood Consumption","volume":"126","author":"Govzman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"McCance, R.A., and Widdowson, E.M. (2014). McCance and Widdowson\u2019s The Composition of Foods, Royal Society of Chemistry."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.11.082","article-title":"USDA\u2019s National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program (NFNAP) Produces High-Quality Data for USDA Food Composition Databases: Two Decades of Collaboration","volume":"238","author":"Haytowitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8223(02)90346-9","article-title":"Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids","volume":"102","author":"Trumbo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA) (2010). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for Fats, Including Saturated Fatty Acids, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated Fatty Acids, Trans Fatty Acids, and Cholesterol. EFSA J., 8, 1461.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2010.1461"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114516000787","article-title":"Dietary Fat Intakes in Irish Adults in 2011: How Much Has Changed in 10 Years?","volume":"115","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-026-01070-5","article-title":"The Omega-3 Index and Self-Reported Dietary Intake of DHA and EPA in Highly Trained, Elite and World Class (Tier 3\u20135) Male and Female Athletes: An Australian Based Cross-sectional Study","volume":"12","author":"Macartney","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sports Med. Open"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2009.1176","article-title":"Labelling Reference Intake Values for N-3 and n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids","volume":"7","year":"2009","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12715","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.12715","article-title":"Fish Oil Supplementation Suppresses Resistance Exercise and Feeding-induced Increases in Anabolic Signaling without Affecting Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis in Young Men","volume":"4","author":"McGlory","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"1","article-title":"Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Training Adaptation and Exercise Recovery: A Muscle-Centric Perspective in Athletes","volume":"34","author":"Witard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gatorade Sports Sci. Exch."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.3390\/dietetics3040041","article-title":"The Quantitation of EPA and DHA in Fish Oil Dietary Supplements Sold in the United States","volume":"3","author":"Hilton","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dietetics"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6816","article-title":"A Comparison of Actual versus Stated Label Amounts of EPA and DHA in Commercial Omega-3 Dietary Supplements in the United States","volume":"95","author":"Kleiner","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7928","DOI":"10.1038\/srep07928","article-title":"Fish Oil Supplements in New Zealand Are Highly Oxidised and Do Not Meet Label Content of N-3 PUFA","volume":"5","author":"Albert","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2018-099027","article-title":"IOC Consensus Statement: Dietary Supplements and the High-Performance Athlete","volume":"52","author":"Maughan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21892","DOI":"10.1038\/srep21892","article-title":"Impact of Sustainable Feeds on Omega-3 Long-Chain Fatty Acid Levels in Farmed Atlantic Salmon, 2006\u20132015","volume":"6","author":"Sprague","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.131445","article-title":"Temporal Variations in the Nutrient Content of Norwegian Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar), 2005\u20132020","volume":"373","author":"Ho","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"101933","article-title":"Nutrients and Contaminants in Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar) Fillet and Fish Feed from 2006 to 2021","volume":"21","author":"Hannisdal","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thuppal, S.V., Von Schacky, C., Harris, W.S., Sherif, K.D., Denby, N., Steinbaum, S.R., Haycock, B., and Bailey, R.L. (2017). Discrepancy between Knowledge and Perceptions of Dietary Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake Compared with the Omega-3 Index. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9090930"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"12","article-title":"The Omega-3 Index in Athletes: Brief Review","volume":"8","author":"Heileson","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Exerc. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-016-0440-4","article-title":"The Influence of Socio-Demographic, Psychological and Knowledge-Related Variables alongside Perceived Cooking and Food Skills Abilities in the Prediction of Diet Quality in Adults: A Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"13","author":"McGowan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1108\/BFJ-05-2012-0118","article-title":"Systematic Review of Omega-3 Enriched Foods and Health","volume":"116","author":"Lane","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. Food J."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjnut.2025.10.010","article-title":"Influence of Fish Consumption and \u03c9-3 Supplementation on the \u03c9-3 Index of Young Adults: A 2 \u00d7 2 Factorial Randomized Controlled Trial (YouFish Study)","volume":"155","author":"McMullan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.3390\/nu6020799","article-title":"Omega-3 Index and Cardiovascular Health","volume":"6","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-009-1131-5","article-title":"Plasma and Erythrocyte Phospholipid Fatty Acid Profile in Professional Basketball and Football Players","volume":"107","author":"Tepsic","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2019.09.001","article-title":"Cross-Sectional Study of the Combined Associations of Dietary and Supplemental Eicosapentaenoic Acid + docosahexaenoic Acid on Omega-3 Index","volume":"71","author":"McDonnell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2000281","article-title":"The Validity of Self-Reported Energy Intake as Determined Using the Doubly Labelled Water Technique","volume":"85","author":"Hill","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capling, L., Beck, K.L., Gifford, J.A., Slater, G., Flood, V.M., and O\u2019Connor, H. (2017). Validity of Dietary Assessment in Athletes: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201710.0081.v1"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/19\/3261\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T04:11:39Z","timestamp":1791951099000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/19\/3261"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18193261"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18193261","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]}}}