{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:13:01Z","timestamp":1792789981368,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Holy Spirit University of Kaslik","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05g06bh89","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05g06bh89","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), are an important class of bioactive lipid mediators, essential for brain development from gestation through adolescence. Yet human studies evaluating the benefits of PUFAs for cognition remain inconsistent. This narrative review synthesizes studies from PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar examining PUFA intake, status, and supplementation in relation to cognitive and neurodevelopmental outcomes. It uses a thematic approach rather than the systematic search and screening protocol of a systematic review. This review also discusses the genetic determinants of PUFA metabolism and their association with neurodevelopmental outcomes, in addition to nutritional recommendations for Lebanon, a Mediterranean country. Animal models consistently show neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 PUFAs during critical windows of brain development. However, evidence from human studies evaluating the cognitive benefits of PUFAs remains limited and inconsistent, with more pronounced benefits in specific populations with low baseline PUFA status, learning difficulties, ADHD, or preterm birth. Genetic variation in genes involved in PUFA metabolism such as FADS1, FADS2, and ELOVL2\/5 affects the capacity to synthesize long-chain PUFAs from dietary precursors, helping explain variability in response to omega-3 supplementation. Lebanon\u2019s traditional Mediterranean diet already supplies PUFAs and MUFAs; the real challenge is improving adherence to it through nutrition education and policy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18193264","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T10:02:27Z","timestamp":1791194547000},"page":"3264","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["\u2018\u2019Not a Universal Effect\u2019\u2019: Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cognition from Pregnancy to Adolescence\u2014A Narrative Review and Nutritional Guidance for a Mediterranean Population"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Elissar","family":"El-Hayek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marguerita","family":"Akiki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie-Joelle","family":"Chbat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rita","family":"Keyrouz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Celine","family":"Mrad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8662-8381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Bouji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cognitive and Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Sciences, Saint Joseph University of Beirut (USJ), North Campus, Tripoli P.O. Box 44, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yonna","family":"Sacre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"389","article-title":"Polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption and concentration among South Indian women during pregnancy","volume":"18","author":"Dwarkanath","year":"2009","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8709.2010.00254.x","article-title":"Dietary intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Mexican women","volume":"7","author":"Stein","year":"2011","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"37","article-title":"New Zealand women have suboptimal intakes of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during pregnancy-a cross sectional study","volume":"130","author":"Eickstaedt","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Z. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2018.02.007","article-title":"Directly quantified dietary n-3 fatty acid intakes of Canadian toddlers are lower than current dietary recommendations","volume":"53","author":"Lacombe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2021-0618","article-title":"The Guelph Family Health Study. Intakes of PUFA are low in preschool-aged children in the Guelph Family Health Study pilot cohort","volume":"47","author":"Burns","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.3390\/nu4121989","article-title":"Monounsaturated Fatty Acids and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: Synopsis of the Evidence Available from Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses","volume":"4","author":"Schwingshackl","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2707","DOI":"10.2337\/db22-0241","article-title":"Plasma Phospholipid Monounsaturated Fatty Acids and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Longitudinal Study in the NICHD Fetal Growth Studies-Singletons Cohort","volume":"71","author":"Tsoi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United (2010). Fats and Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition: Report of an Expert Consultation, Geneva, Switzerland, 10\u201314 November 2008, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA) (2010). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol. Efsa J., 8, 1461.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2010.1461"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-018-1694-1","article-title":"Inadequate daily intakes of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the general French population of children (3\u201310 years) and adolescents (11\u201317 years): The INCA2 survey","volume":"58","author":"Guesnet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1159\/000456723","article-title":"Systematic Review on N-3 and N-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake in European Countries in Light of the Current Recommendations\u2014Focus on Specific Population Groups","volume":"70","author":"Sioen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahfouz, R., Akiki, M.T., Ndayra, V., El Khoury, R., Chawi, M., Hatem, M., Hanna-Wakim, L., Sacre, Y., and Hoteit, M. (2024). Energy, Macronutrients and Micronutrients Intake Among Pregnant Women in Lebanon: Findings from the Updated Lebanese National Food Consumption Survey (LEBANON-FCS). Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16234059"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, T., Shen, J., Abecasis, G.R., Kisialiou, A., Ordovas, J.M., Guralnik, J.M., Singleton, A., Bandinelli, S., Cherubini, A., and Arnett, D. (2009). Genome-wide association study of plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids in the InCHIANTI Study. PLoS Genet., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1000338"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18860","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0704292104","article-title":"Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism","volume":"104","author":"Caspi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8545","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.7b02375","article-title":"Determination of Double Bond Positions in Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Using the Photochemical Patern\u00f2-B\u00fcchi Reaction with Acetone and Tandem Mass Spectrometry","volume":"89","author":"Murphy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1186\/s13068-022-02223-w","article-title":"Functional analysis of the dehydratase domains of the PUFA synthase from Emiliania huxleyi in Escherichia coli and Arabidopsis thaliana","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Biofuels"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2603","DOI":"10.1039\/C9FO02618E","article-title":"The immunomodulatory effect of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on the RAW264.7 cells by modification of the membrane structure and function","volume":"11","author":"Bie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nzaa149","DOI":"10.1093\/cdn\/nzaa149","article-title":"Circulating Concentrations of Essential Fatty Acids, Linoleic and \u03b1-Linolenic Acid, in US Adults in 2003\u20132004 and 2011\u20132012 and the Relation with Risk Factors for Cardiometabolic Disease: An NHANES Analysis","volume":"4","author":"Petersen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Dev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.103189","article-title":"The associations of plasma phospholipid arachidonic acid with cardiovascular diseases: A Mendelian randomization study","volume":"63","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2273","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2273","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids are associated with blood\u2013brain barrier integrity in a healthy aging population","volume":"11","author":"Barnes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2187","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-022-02064-w","article-title":"Red blood cell omega-3 fatty acids and attention scores in healthy adolescents","volume":"32","author":"Gignac","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.63727","article-title":"Changes in the Eicosapentaenoic Acid to Arachidonic Acid Ratio in Serum over 10 Years in a Japanese Community: The Hisayama Study","volume":"30","author":"Honda","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2020.102109","article-title":"Maternal dietary deficiency of n-3 fatty acids affects metabolic and epigenetic phenotypes of the developing fetus","volume":"158","author":"Basak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, C., Luo, L.D., Feng, I., and Ma, S. (2022). Molecular mechanisms of synaptogenesis. Front. Synaptic Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsyn.2022.939793"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Redruello-Requejo, M., Samaniego-Vaesken, M.d.L., Puga, A.M., Montero-Bravo, A., Ruperto, M., Rodr\u00edguez-Alonso, P., Partearroyo, T., and Varela-Moreiras, G. (2023). Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intakes, Determinants and Dietary Sources in the Spanish Population: Findings from the ANIBES Study. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15030562"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostaglandins.2018.02.003","article-title":"Modulation of oxidative stress response by flaxseed oil: Role of lipid peroxidation and underlying mechanisms","volume":"135","author":"Yadav","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2012.04374.x","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: Nutrition or pharmacology?","volume":"75","author":"Calder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2022.01.009","article-title":"Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake and Brain Health: Balance is the Key","volume":"30","author":"Rebello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orchard, T.S., Gaudier-Diaz, M.M., Phuwamongkolwiwat-Chu, P., Andridge, R., Lustberg, M.B., Bomser, J., Cole, R.M., Belury, M.A., and DeVries, A.C. (2018). Low Sucrose, Omega-3 Enriched Diet Has Region-Specific Effects on Neuroinflammation and Synaptic Function Markers in a Mouse Model of Doxorubicin-Based Chemotherapy. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10122004"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2022.01.001","article-title":"Oxidative Stress Mediates the Association Between Dietary Fat Intake and Cognition in US Older Adults","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2045125319858901","DOI":"10.1177\/2045125319858901","article-title":"The emerging role of omega-3 fatty acids as a therapeutic option in neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"9","author":"Reimers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.117.254607","article-title":"Perinatal Brain Docosahexaenoic Acid Concentration Has a Lasting Impact on Cognition in Mice","volume":"147","author":"Lozada","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO03345J","article-title":"Short-term supplementation of EPA-enriched ethanolamine plasmalogen increases the level of DHA in the brain and liver of n-3 PUFA deficient mice in early life after weaning","volume":"13","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Chen, L., Zhang, N., Zhao, Y., Che, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, T., and Wen, M. (2023). DHA and EPA Alleviate Epileptic Depression in PTZ-Treated Young Mice Model by Inhibiting Neuroinflammation through Regulating Microglial M2 Polarization and Improving Mitochondrial Metabolism. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12122079"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlr.2023.100458","article-title":"Maternal DHA intake in mice increased DHA metabolites in the pup brain and ameliorated MeHg-induced behavioral disorder","volume":"64","author":"Oguro","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e69047","DOI":"10.4025\/actascibiolsci.v46i1.69047","article-title":"Effects of curcumin and fish oil on motor behavior and biochemical parameters in mice exposed to rotenone","volume":"46","author":"Alves","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2025.01.002","article-title":"Synergistically effects of n-3 PUFA and B vitamins prevent diabetic cognitive dysfunction through promoting TET2-mediated active DNA demethylation","volume":"45","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcme.2021.10.001","article-title":"DHA-rich fish oil and Tualang honey reduce chronic stress-induced oxidative damage in the brain of rat model","volume":"12","author":"Asari","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Tradit. Complement. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2024.09.021","article-title":"Dietary EPA and DHA enrichment of a high fat diet during doxorubicin-based chemotherapy attenuated neuroinflammatory gene expression in the brain of C57bl\/6 ovariectomized mice","volume":"123","author":"Ormiston","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2022.05.025","article-title":"Protective effects of omega-3 fatty acids in a blood-brain barrier-on-chip model and on postoperative delirium-like behaviour in mice","volume":"130","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yildiz, C., and Medina, I. (2024). Thermodynamic Analysis to Evaluate the Effect of Diet on Brain Glucose Metabolism: The Case of Fish Oil. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16050631"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2011.12.009","article-title":"Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, cognition, and behavior in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"28","author":"Milte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0633-0","article-title":"High-dose eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) improves attention and vigilance in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and low endogenous EPA levels","volume":"9","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2015.0052","article-title":"Biochemical and Psychological Effects of Omega-3\/6 Supplements in Male Adolescents with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial","volume":"25","author":"Matsudaira","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2021.1955434","article-title":"Effects of dietary omega-3 intake on vigilant attention and resting-state functional connectivity in neurotypical children and adolescents","volume":"25","author":"Morandini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richardson, A.J., Burton, J.R., Sewell, R.P., Spreckelsen, T.F., and Montgomery, P. (2012). Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, cognition and behavior in children aged 7\u20139 years: A randomized, controlled trial (the DOLAB Study). PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043909"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sittiprapaporn, P., Bumrungpert, A., Suyajai, P., and Stough, C. (2022). Effectiveness of Fish Oil-DHA Supplementation for Cognitive Function in Thai Children: A Randomized, Doubled-Blind, Two-Dose, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11172595"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2018.04.008","article-title":"Randomized open-label trial of docosahexaenoic acid\u2013enriched fish oil and fish meal on cognitive and behavioral functioning in Omani children","volume":"57","author":"Ghebremeskel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahabi, B., Hern\u00e1ndez-Mart\u00ednez, C., Jard\u00ed, C., Aparicio, E., and Arija, V. (2025). Maternal Omega-6\/Omega-3 Concentration Ratio During Pregnancy and Infant Neurodevelopment: The ECLIPSES Study. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17010170"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.2174\/0115733963273591231214112617","article-title":"The Effectiveness of Perinatal Omega-3 Supplements in Neurodevelopment and Physical Growth of 9- and 12-month-old Infants: A Follow-up of a Clinical Trial","volume":"21","author":"Sarrafi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021055819","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2021-055819","article-title":"Maternal High-Dose DHA Supplementation and Neurodevelopment at 18\u201322 Months of Preterm Children","volume":"150","author":"Guillot","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2015.05.003","article-title":"What is the relationship between gestational age and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) levels?","volume":"100","author":"Baack","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basak, S., Mallick, R., Banerjee, A., Pathak, S., and Duttaroy, A.K. (2021). Maternal Supply of Both Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Is Required for Optimal Neurodevelopment. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202104.0665.v3"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zinkow, A., Grodzicki, W., Czerwi\u0144ska, M., and Dziendzikowska, K. (2024). Molecular Mechanisms Linking Omega-3 Fatty Acids and the Gut-Brain Axis. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30010071"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2012.00516.x","article-title":"Influences of micronutrient and omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognition, learning, and behavior: Methodological considerations and implications for children and adolescents in developed societies","volume":"70","author":"Frensham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.47836\/mjmhs.21.1.34","article-title":"The Growth-promoting Effect of Omega-3 on Children: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"21","author":"Zulhazman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malays. J. Med. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J., Lee, H., Kang, S., and Park, W. (2016). Fatty Acid Desaturases, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Regulation, and Biotechnological Advances. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8010023"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2015.11.005","article-title":"Associations between a fatty acid desaturase gene polymorphism and blood arachidonic acid compositions in Japanese elderly","volume":"105","author":"Horiguchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"103","article-title":"Desaturase and elongase-limiting endogenous long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M800630-JLR200","article-title":"An alternate pathway to long-chain polyunsaturates: The FADS2 gene product Delta8-desaturates 20:2n-6 and 20:3n-3","volume":"50","author":"Park","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M041368","article-title":"Molecular basis for differential elongation of omega-3 docosapentaenoic acid by the rat Elovl5 and Elovl2","volume":"54","author":"Gregory","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2011.09.024","article-title":"Biochemical characterization of the very long-chain fatty acid elongase ELOVL7","volume":"585","author":"Naganuma","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvs105","article-title":"Very long-chain fatty acids: Elongation, physiology and related disorders","volume":"152","author":"Kihara","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M046151","article-title":"Elovl2 ablation demonstrates that systemic DHA is endogenously produced and is essential for lipid homeostasis in mice","volume":"55","author":"Pauter","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076029620915286","DOI":"10.1177\/1076029620915286","article-title":"Association Between Genetic Variants in FADS1-FADS2 and ELOVL2 and Obesity, Lipid Traits, and Fatty Acids in Tunisian Population","volume":"26","author":"Khamlaoui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Appl. Thromb.\/Hemost."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-nutr-082018-124250","article-title":"FADS1 and FADS2 Polymorphisms Modulate Fatty Acid Metabolism and Dietary Impact on Health","volume":"39","author":"Koletzko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114511003230","article-title":"Differences in arachidonic acid levels and fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene variants in African Americans and European Americans with diabetes or the metabolic syndrome","volume":"107","author":"Sergeant","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathias, R.A., Fu, W., Akey, J.M., Ainsworth, H.C., Torgerson, D.G., Ruczinski, I., Sergeant, S., Barnes, K.C., and Chilton, F.H. (2012). Adaptive evolution of the FADS gene cluster within Africa. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0044926"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-017-0167","article-title":"Dietary adaptation of FADS genes in Europe varied across time and geography","volume":"1","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sergeant, S., Keith, B.A., Seeds, M.C., Legins, J.A., Young, C.B., Vitolins, M.Z., and Chilton, F.H. (2023). Impact of FADS gene variation and dietary fatty acid exposure on biochemical and anthropomorphic phenotypes in a Hispanic\/Latino cohort. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1111624"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymgme.2011.02.012","article-title":"Polymorphisms in FADS1 and FADS2 alter desaturase activity in young Caucasian and Asian adults","volume":"103","author":"Merino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Genet. Metab."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamaguchi, A., Botta, E., and Holinstat, M. (2022). Eicosanoids in inflammation in the blood and the vessel. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.997403"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chilton, F.H., Manichaikul, A., Yang, C., O\u2019Connor, T.D., Johnstone, L.M., Blomquist, S., Schembre, S.M., Sergeant, S., Zec, M., and Tsai, M.Y. (2021). Interpreting Clinical Trials With Omega-3 Supplements in the Context of Ancestry and FADS Genetic Variation. Front. Nutr., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.808054"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2766","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M008359","article-title":"FADS genetic variants and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in a homogeneous island population","volume":"51","author":"Mathias","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coltell, O., Sorl\u00ed, J.V., Asensio, E.M., Barrag\u00e1n, R., Gonz\u00e1lez, J.I., Gim\u00e9nez-Alba, I.M., Zan\u00f3n-Moreno, V., Estruch, R., Ram\u00edrez-Sabio, J.B., and Pascual, E.C. (2020). Genome-Wide Association Study for Serum Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Exploratory Analysis of the Sex-Specific Effects and Dietary Modulation in Mediterranean Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020310"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.058685","article-title":"FADS genotype and diet are important determinants of DHA status: A cross-sectional study in Danish infants","volume":"97","author":"Larsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114524001624","article-title":"Effects of the rs174575 single nucleotide polymorphism in FADS2 on levels of long-chain PUFA: A meta-analysis","volume":"132","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-018-0480-5","article-title":"Allele-specific methylation in the FADS genomic region in DNA from human saliva, CD4+ cells, and total leukocytes","volume":"10","author":"Rahbar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Epigenet."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoile, S.P., Clarke-Harris, R., Huang, R.C., Calder, P.C., Mori, T.A., Beilin, L.J., Lillycrop, K.A., and Burdge, G.C. (2014). Supplementation with N-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids or olive oil in men and women with renal disease induces differential changes in the DNA methylation of FADS2 and ELOVL5 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0109896"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.087882","article-title":"FADS single-nucleotide polymorphisms are associated with behavioral outcomes in children, and the effect varies between sexes and is dependent on PPAR genotype","volume":"100","author":"Jensen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morales, E., Bustamante, M., Gonzalez, J.R., Guxens, M., Torrent, M., Mendez, M., Garcia-Esteban, R., Julvez, J., Forns, J., and Vrijheid, M. (2011). Genetic Variants of the FADS Gene Cluster and ELOVL Gene Family, Colostrums LC-PUFA Levels, Breastfeeding, and Child Cognition. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017181"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyy273","article-title":"Effect modification of FADS2 polymorphisms on the association between breastfeeding and intelligence: Results from a collaborative meta-analysis","volume":"48","author":"Hartwig","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steer, C.D., Davey Smith, G., Emmett, P.M., Hibbeln, J.R., and Golding, J. (2010). FADS2 Polymorphisms Modify the Effect of Breastfeeding on Child IQ. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011570"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1007\/s10519-024-10210-0","article-title":"No Evidence of Interaction Between FADS2 Genotype and Breastfeeding on Cognitive or Other Traits in the UK Biobank","volume":"55","author":"Centorame","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Genet."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2021.08.026","article-title":"Maternal FADS2 single nucleotide polymorphism modified the impact of prenatal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation on child neurodevelopment at 5 years: Follow-up of a randomized clinical trial","volume":"40","author":"Schoen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520002731","article-title":"Erosion of the Mediterranean diet among adolescents: Evidence from an Eastern Mediterranean Country","volume":"125","author":"Naja","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwalla, N., Deeb, N., Naja, F., and Nasreddine, L. (2025). Developing sustainable food-based dietary guidelines for Lebanon: Integrating health, economic resilience, and sustainability. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2025.1531273"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/19\/3264\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T04:12:20Z","timestamp":1791259940000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/19\/3264"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18193264"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18193264","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]}}}