{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:08:39Z","timestamp":1792789719371,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791072000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791072000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Medical University of Bialystok","award":["B.SUB.24.112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B.SUB.24.112"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y4ya841","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Medical University of Bialystok","award":["B.SUB.25.274"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B.SUB.25.274"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y4ya841","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Medical University of Bialystok","award":["B.SUB.26.128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B.SUB.26.128"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y4ya841","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["B.SUB.24.112"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B.SUB.24.112"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y4ya841","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["B.SUB.25.274"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B.SUB.25.274"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y4ya841","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["B.SUB.26.128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B.SUB.26.128"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00y4ya841","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Ghrelin is a key orexigenic hormone involved in the regulation of appetite and energy homeostasis, and its fasting circulating concentrations may reflect long-term energy balance and nutritional status. The aim of the study was to assess the associations between habitual daily energy and macronutrient intake from a conventional diet and the fasting total ghrelin concentrations in individuals with different nutritional status and to evaluate the postprandial ghrelin response following consumption of a standardized meal. An additional aim was to identify body composition parameters predictive of ghrelin concentrations. Methods: The prospective study included 76 individuals aged 40\u201360 years, classified into four body mass index (BMI) groups. Body composition was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Energy and macronutrient intake was evaluated based on standardized 3-day food records. Ghrelin concentrations were measured in the fasting state and at 60, 120, 180, and 240 min after consumption of a standardized mix liquid meal (Nutridrink Protein, 459 kcal). Results: Fasting total ghrelin concentrations were not associated with recent energy or macronutrient intake. In women, changes from the baseline differed across BMI groups at 60 and 120 min, whereas no between-group differences were observed in men. In the regression analyses, BMI and gynoid region fat showed significant coefficients in women, although the overall model was not significant, while gynoid region fat was significantly associated with fasting ghrelin in men. Conclusions: Fasting total ghrelin appears to reflect longer-term metabolic phenotype and adipose tissue distribution rather than short-term variation in habitual energy or macronutrient intake. The BMI-dependent differences in the early postprandial response observed in women further suggest that nutritional status may modify dynamic ghrelin regulation in a sex-specific manner. These findings indicate that ghrelin should not be interpreted solely as an acute marker of dietary intake, but rather within the broader context of body composition, fat distribution, and sex-related metabolic regulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18193271","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T10:02:27Z","timestamp":1791194547000},"page":"3271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Do Nutritional Status and Dietary Intake Influence the Ghrelin Response?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3758-4288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelina","family":"Radziszewska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dietetics and Clinical Nutrition, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-054 Bialystok, 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Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0832-6593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Urszula","family":"Cwalina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-295 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9821-9347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beata","family":"Zy\u015bk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dietetics and Clinical Nutrition, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-054 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7403-6928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelika","family":"Buczy\u0144ska-Backiel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Monika","family":"Moroz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research Support Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Joanna","family":"Roszkowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research Support Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Monika","family":"Sto\u0142yhwo-Gofron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mediart Obesity and Overweight Treatment Clinic, 80-298 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8805-0744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edyta","family":"Adamska-Patruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research Support Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Nutriomics, Clinical Research Centre, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Kr\u0119towski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, 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