{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T11:58:06Z","timestamp":1791460686747,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000867","name":"Robert Wood Johnson Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["76014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["76014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000867","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["76014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["76014"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ymmdj85","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Tiny Foundation"},{"name":"Wu Tsai Human Performance Alliance"},{"name":"the Joe and Clara Tsai Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The timing of medication intake can influence therapeutic efficacy and adverse effects, yet little is known about when medications are actually taken in daily life. We aimed to characterize real-world temporal patterns of medication and dietary supplement use at the population level. Methods: We analyzed time-stamped medication and dietary supplement records from 26,069 adults enrolled in the myCircadianClock smartphone application, generating a population-scale atlas of real-world intake timing. Results: Across more than 200,000 intake events, medication use exhibited daily patterns, with most therapeutic classes following one of two dominant patterns: morning- or evening-predominant intake. In contrast, dietary supplements displayed four distinct temporal patterns, largely corresponding to morning, meal-associated, or bedtime use. Medication timing was highly consistent across age and sex, although the types of medications consumed varied substantially with age. While the timing of many medications aligned with general chronotherapy recommendations, every therapeutic class exhibited considerable variability, with a substantial proportion of intake events occurring several hours outside the predominant intake window. Conclusions: This population-scale atlas provides the first comprehensive description of real-world medication and dietary supplement timing. These findings suggest that temporal adherence may be considered an important dimension of medication-taking behavior.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18193291","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T11:26:53Z","timestamp":1791458813000},"page":"3291","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Daily Patterns in the Timing of Medication and Supplement Intake"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Tyler","family":"Tran","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1308-5961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shweta","family":"Varshney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1273-1225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura van","family":"Rosmalen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6494-2433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordan L.","family":"Levy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Kyla L.","family":"Laing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9718-9310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily N. C.","family":"Manoogian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8022-1679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael T. Y.","family":"Lam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep Medicine, and Physiology, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7855-0091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Satchidananda","family":"Panda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regulatory Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11704","article-title":"Circadian Topology of Metabolism","volume":"491","author":"Bass","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.03.015","article-title":"Time for Food: The Intimate Interplay between Nutrition, Metabolism, and the Circadian Clock","volume":"161","author":"Asher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah4967","article-title":"Circadian Physiology of Metabolism","volume":"354","author":"Panda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2016.03.004","article-title":"Dosing-Time Makes the Poison: Circadian Regulation and Pharmacotherapy","volume":"22","author":"Dallmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2018.07.003","article-title":"Training the Circadian Clock, Clocking the Drugs, and Drugging the Clock to Prevent, Manage, and Treat Chronic Diseases","volume":"39","author":"Sulli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10928-021-09751-2","article-title":"Circadian Rhythms: Influence on Physiology, Pharmacology, and Therapeutic Interventions","volume":"48","author":"Ayyar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pharmacokinet. Pharmacodyn."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2017.06.001","article-title":"Effects of Morning vs Evening Statin Administration on Lipid Profile: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Awad","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2018.09.003","article-title":"Circadian Rhythms and Rheumatoid Arthritis","volume":"86","author":"Cutolo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2020.114254","article-title":"Therapeutics on the Clock: Circadian Medicine in the Treatment of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases","volume":"182","author":"Jacob","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-021-00889-2","article-title":"Glucocorticoid Circadian Rhythms in Immune Function","volume":"44","author":"Olejniczak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2015.142","article-title":"Chronotherapy with Conventional Blood Pressure Medications Improves Management of Hypertension and Reduces Cardiovascular and Stroke Risks","volume":"39","author":"Hermida","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2020.10.014","article-title":"Chronotherapy of Cardiac and Vascular Disease: Timing Medications to Circadian Rhythms to Optimize Treatment Effects and Outcomes","volume":"57","author":"Smolensky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4565","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz754","article-title":"Bedtime Hypertension Treatment Improves Cardiovascular Risk Reduction: The Hygia Chronotherapy Trial","volume":"41","author":"Hermida","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amiama-Roig, A., Verdugo-Sivianes, E.M., Carnero, A., and Blanco, J.-R. (2022). Chronotherapy: Circadian Rhythms and Their Influence in Cancer Therapy. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14205071"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e129","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(21)00639-2","article-title":"Toxicity and Efficacy of Chronomodulated Chemotherapy: A Systematic Review","volume":"23","author":"Printezi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax7621","article-title":"Dosing Time Matters","volume":"365","author":"Ruben","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16219","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1408886111","article-title":"A Circadian Gene Expression Atlas in Mammals: Implications for Biology and Medicine","volume":"111","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaao0318","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao0318","article-title":"Diurnal Transcriptome Atlas of a Primate across Major Neural and Peripheral Tissues","volume":"359","author":"Mure","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocpiqo.2023.08.005","article-title":"The Burden of Chronic Disease","volume":"8","author":"Hacker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc. Innov. Qual. Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s41999-021-00479-3","article-title":"Polypharmacy in Older Adults: A Narrative Review of Definitions, Epidemiology and Consequences","volume":"12","author":"Pazan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Geriatr. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.13766","article-title":"Trends in Prescription Drug Use among Adults in the United States from 1999\u20132012","volume":"314","author":"Kantor","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2015.8581","article-title":"Changes in Prescription and Over-the-Counter Medication and Dietary Supplement Use among Older Adults in the United States, 2005 vs. 2011","volume":"176","author":"Qato","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, A., Lange, T., Spies, C., Finger, A., Berg, D., and Oster, H. (2022). Foundations of Circadian Medicine. PLoS Biol., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3001567"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2014.03.002","article-title":"Circadian Control of Glucose Metabolism","volume":"3","author":"Kalsbeek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2019.1595588","article-title":"Circadian Rhythms: A Regulator of Gastrointestinal Health and Dysfunction","volume":"13","author":"Voigt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.124.323515","article-title":"Hypertension: Causes and Consequences of Circadian Rhythms in Blood Pressure","volume":"134","author":"Faraci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13608","DOI":"10.2196\/13608","article-title":"Mobile Apps for Medication Management: Review and Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Tabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR mHealth uHealth"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1331\/JAPhA.2013.12202","article-title":"Smartphone Medication Adherence Apps: Potential Benefits to Patients and Providers","volume":"53","author":"Dayer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Pharm. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-021-01038-3","article-title":"Assessing Temporal Eating Pattern in Free Living Humans through the MyCircadianClock App","volume":"46","author":"Manoogian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.11.004","article-title":"Ten-Hour Time-Restricted Eating Reduces Weight, Blood Pressure, and Atherogenic Lipids in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"31","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22756","article-title":"Time-Restricted Eating Effects on Body Composition and Metabolic Measures in Humans Who Are Overweight: A Feasibility Study","volume":"28","author":"Chow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phillips, N.E., Mareschal, J., Schwab, N., Manoogian, E.N.C., Borloz, S., Ostinelli, G., Gauthier-Jaques, A., Umwali, S., Rodriguez, E.G., and Aeberli, D. (2021). The Effects of Time-Restricted Eating versus Standard Dietary Advice on Weight, Metabolic Health and the Consumption of Processed Food: A Pragmatic Randomised Controlled Trial in Community-Based Adults. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.01.29.21250725"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prasad, M., Fine, K., Gee, A., Nair, N., Popp, C.J., Cheng, B., Manoogian, E.N.C., Panda, S., and Blandine, L. (2021). A Smartphone Intervention to Promote Time Restricted Eating Reduces Body Weight and Blood Pressure in Adults with Overweight and Obesity: A Pilot Study. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13072148"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114521002944","article-title":"Eating Architecture in Adults at Increased Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Associations with Body Fat and Glycaemic Control","volume":"128","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popp, C.J., Curran, M., Wang, C., Prasad, M., Fine, K., Gee, A., Nair, N., Perdomo, K., Chen, S., and Hu, L. (2021). Temporal Eating Patterns and Eating Windows among Adults with Overweight or Obesity. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13124485"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2021.111583","article-title":"Time-Restricted Eating Improves Glycemic Control and Dampens Energy-Consuming Pathways in Human Adipose Tissue","volume":"96","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2022.08.018","article-title":"Feasibility of Time-Restricted Eating and Impacts on Cardiometabolic Health in 24-h Shift Workers: The Healthy Heroes Randomized Control Trial","volume":"34","author":"Manoogian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23577","article-title":"The Effects of Time-Restricted Eating and Weight Loss on Bone Metabolism and Health: A 6-Month Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"31","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.7326\/M24-0859","article-title":"Annals of Internal Medicine Time-Restricted Eating in Adults with Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"177","author":"Manoogian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-026-01504-0","article-title":"The Diversity and Consistency of What and When People Eat","volume":"8","author":"Tran","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.09.005","article-title":"A Smartphone App Reveals Erratic Diurnal Eating Patterns in Humans That Can Be Modulated for Health Benefits","volume":"22","author":"Gill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, N.J., Kumar, V., and Panda, S. (2017). A Camera-Phone Based Study Reveals Erratic Eating Pattern and Disrupted Daily Eating- Fasting Cycle among Adults in India. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0172852"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7680","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-11848-8","article-title":"Epidemiology of Accelerometer-based Sleep Parameters in US School-aged Children and Adults: NHANES 2011\u20132014","volume":"12","author":"Su","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1202775","article-title":"Diurnal and Seasonal Mood Vary with Work, Sleep, and Daylength across Diverse Cultures","volume":"333","author":"Golder","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2010.01.006","article-title":"Chronotherapeutic Strategy: Rhythm Monitoring, Manipulation and Disruption","volume":"62","author":"Ohdo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1080\/07420520500545979","article-title":"Social Jetlag: Misalignment of Biological and Social Time","volume":"23","author":"Wittmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1001\/archinternmed.2010.436","article-title":"Effects of Evening vs. Morning Levothyroxine Intake: A Randomized Double-Blind Crossover Trial","volume":"170","author":"Bolk","year":"2010","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/19\/3291\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T11:32:13Z","timestamp":1791459133000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/18\/19\/3291"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu18193291"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu18193291","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]}}}