{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T14:39:17Z","timestamp":1777473557197,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,31]],"date-time":"2013-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1375228800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vitamin D deficiency, as well as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and related risk factors are highly prevalent worldwide and frequently co-occur. Vitamin D has long been known to be an essential part of bone metabolism, although recent evidence suggests that vitamin D plays a key role in the pathophysiology of other diseases, including CVD, as well. In this review, we aim to summarize the most recent data on the involvement of vitamin D deficiency in the development of major cardiovascular risk factors: hypertension, obesity and dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, chronic kidney disease and endothelial dysfunction. In addition, we outline the most recent observational, as well as interventional data on the influence of vitamin D on CVD. Since it is still an unresolved issue whether vitamin D deficiency is causally involved in the pathogenesis of CVD, data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) designed to assess the impact of vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular outcomes are awaited with anticipation. At present, we can only conclude that vitamin D deficiency is an independent cardiovascular risk factor, but whether vitamin D supplementation can significantly improve cardiovascular outcomes is still largely unknown.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5083005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,31]],"date-time":"2013-07-31T12:11:46Z","timestamp":1375272706000},"page":"3005-3021","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":78,"title":["Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Katharina","family":"Kienreich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Tomaschitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Specialist Clinic Bad Aussee, 8990 Bad Aussee, Austria"},{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Verheyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Pieber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Gaksch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Gr\u00fcbler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Pilz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research,  VU University Medical Center, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra070553","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency","volume":"357","author":"Holick","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. 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