{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T03:28:43Z","timestamp":1791343723714,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,15]],"date-time":"2013-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1376524800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vitamin A deficiency continues to be an international public health problem with several important health consequences including blindness and overall increased rates of morbidity and mortality. To address this widespread issue, a series of strategies have been put into place from dietary diversification to supplementation and fortification programs. Retinyl palmitate has been used successfully for decades as a supplement as well as a way to fortify numerous foods, including vegetable oil, rice, monosodium glutamate, cereal flours and sugar. Recently, there has been rising interest in using a natural source of carotenoids, \u03b2-carotene from red palm oil (RPO), for fortification. Although RPO interventions have also been shown to effectively prevent Vitamin A deficiency, there are numerous challenges in using beta-carotene from RPO as a fortification technique. \u03b2-Carotene can induce significant changes in appearance and taste of the fortified product. Moreover, costs of fortifying with beta-carotene are higher than with retinyl palmitate. Therefore, RPO should only be used as a source of Vitamin A if it is produced and used in its crude form and regularly consumed without frying. Furthermore, refined RPO should be fortified with retinyl palmitate, not \u03b2-carotene, to ensure that there is adequate Vitamin A content.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5083257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,16]],"date-time":"2013-08-16T02:05:47Z","timestamp":1376618747000},"page":"3257-3271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["A Comparison of Retinyl Palmitate and Red Palm Oil  \u03b2-Carotene as Strategies to Address Vitamin A Deficiency"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Ellie","family":"Souganidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arnaud","family":"Laillou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montpellier II, Science and Technology, Montpellier 34000, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magali","family":"Leyvraz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition, Geneva 1200, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Regina","family":"Moench-Pfanner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition, Geneva 1200, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.9.2857S","article-title":"Extent of Vitamin A deficiency among preschool children and women of reproductive age","volume":"132","author":"West","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sommer, A., and West, K.P.J. (1996). Vitamin A Deficiency: Health, Survival, and Vision, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195088243.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/40.5.1090","article-title":"Increased risk of respiratory disease and diarrhea in children with preexisting mild Vitamin A deficiency","volume":"40","author":"Sommer","year":"1984","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.318.7183.570","article-title":"Double blind, cluster randomized trial of low dose supplementation with Vitamin A or \u03b2-carotene on mortality related to pregnancy in Nepal","volume":"318","author":"West","year":"1999","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/152.6.542","article-title":"Night blindness during pregnancy and subsequent mortality among women in Nepal: Effects of Vitamin A and \u03b2-carotene supplementation","volume":"152","author":"Christian","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"371","article-title":"Quantification of the \u201cSLAMENGHI\u201d factors for carotenoid bioavailability and bioconversion","volume":"68","author":"West","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Vitam. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(95)92111-7","article-title":"Lack of improvement of Vitamin A status with increased consumption of dark green leafy vegetables","volume":"346","author":"West","year":"1995","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2934S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.9.2934S","article-title":"Process indicators for monitoring and evaluating Vitamin A programs","volume":"132","author":"Bloem","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2947S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.9.2947S","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency disorders: Assessment and control of VADD","volume":"132","author":"Ramakrishnan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1177\/156482659801900202","article-title":"Overview: Rationale and elements of a successful food fortification program","volume":"19","year":"1998","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lotfi, M., Mannar, M.G.V., Merx, R.J.H.M., and Naber-van den Heuvel, P. (1996). Micronutrient Fortification of Foods: Current Practices, Research, and Opportunities, Micronutrient Initiative\/International Agricultural Centre."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Semba, R.D., and Bloem, M.W. (2008). Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries, Humana Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-464-3"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/34.1.41","article-title":"The effect of Vitamin A fortification of sugar on the serum Vitamin A levels of preschool Guatemalan children: A longitudinal evaluation","volume":"34","author":"Arroyave","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/48.5.1265","article-title":"Vitamin A-fortified monosodium glutamate and Vitamin A status: A controlled field trial","volume":"48","author":"Azio","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"71","article-title":"Fortification of MSG with Vitamin A: The Philippines experience","volume":"39","author":"Solon","year":"1985","journal-title":"Food Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.3.738","article-title":"Efficacy of a Vitamin A fortified wheat-flour bun on the Vitamin A status of Filipino schoolchildren","volume":"72","author":"Solon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/0889-1575(91)90035-5","article-title":"Studies on fortification of refined soybean oil with all-trans-retinyl palmitate in Brazil: Stability during cooking and storage","volume":"4","author":"Favaro","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5273","DOI":"10.1021\/jf9802528","article-title":"Retention of Vitamin E and added retinyl palmitate in selected vegetable oils during deep-fat frying and in fried breaded products","volume":"46","author":"Simonne","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/53.4.989Sb","article-title":"Introduction: Nutritional aspects of palm oil","volume":"53","author":"Cottrell","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S438","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-6047.11.s.7.1.x","article-title":"Bioavailability and Vitamin A value of carotenes from red palm oil assessed by an extrinsic isotope reference method","volume":"11","author":"You","year":"2002","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Allen, L., de Benoist, B., Dary, O., and Hurrell, R. (2006). Guidelines on Food Fortification with Micronutrients, World Health Organization and Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"West, K.P.J., and Sommer, A. (1984). Periodic, Large Oral Doses of Vitamin A Deficiency and Xerophthalmia: A Summary of Experiences, A Report of the International Vitamin A Consultative Group, IVAGC."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(1982). Control of Vitamin A deficiency and xerophthalmia. Report of a joint Who\/UNICEF\/USAID\/Helen Keller International\/IVAGC meeting. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser., 672, 1\u201370."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"369","article-title":"A place for palm fruit oil to eliminate Vitamin A deficiency","volume":"12","year":"2003","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Johnson, L.E. (1998). Food Fortification to End Micronutrient Malnutrition: State of the Art, International Development Research Centre."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.9.2927S","article-title":"Food fortification to reduce Vitamin A deficiency: International Vitamin A Consultative Group Recommendations","volume":"132","author":"Dary","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Bagriansky, J., and Ranum, P. (1998). Vitamin A Fortification of PL480 Vegetable Oil, SUSTAIN."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sridhar, K.K. (1998). Food Fortification to End Micronutrient Malnutrition: State of the Art, International Development Research Centre."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"329","article-title":"Medical resurvey of nutrition in Newfoundland 1948","volume":"60","author":"Aykroyd","year":"1949","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"20","article-title":"Refining of red palm oil","volume":"8","author":"Ooi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Elaeis"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02541384","article-title":"Minor constituents of palm oil","volume":"62","author":"Goh","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"The refining of palm oil","volume":"1","author":"Young","year":"1981","journal-title":"PORIM Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1177\/156482650002100213","article-title":"Characteristics of red palm oil, a carotene- and Vitamin E-rich refined oil for food uses","volume":"21","author":"Nagendran","year":"2000","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Ooi, C.K., Choo, Y.M., and Ong, A.S.H. (1991). Recovery of Carotenoids. (No. 5019668), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Ooi, C.K., Choo, Y.M., and Ong, A.S.H. (1993). Refining of edible oil. (MY-104059A), Malaysian Patent."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Choo, Y.M., Ma, A.N., Ooi, C.K., Yap, S.C., and Basiron, Y. (1993). Red Palm Oil\u2014A Carotene Rich Nutritious Oil, Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1016\/S0271-5317(05)80534-2","article-title":"Evaluation of the effect of heat treatment on the biological value of Vitamin A fortified soybean oil","volume":"12","author":"Favaro","year":"1992","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1177\/156482651203300303","article-title":"Vegetable oil of poor quality is limiting the success of fortification with Vitamin A in Egypt","volume":"33","author":"Laillou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"PATH\u2019s Ultra Rice\u00ae Project. Available online:http:\/\/www.path.org\/files\/MCHN_ultrarice_leaflet.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2000.tb13612.x","article-title":"Stability of retinyl palmitate during cooking and storage in rice fortified with Ultra Rice\u2122 fortification technology","volume":"65","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1994.tb06969.x","article-title":"Bioavailability of Vitamin A in a synthetic rice premix","volume":"59","author":"Flores","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1992.tb05511.x","article-title":"Stabilization of Vitamin A in a synthetic rice premix","volume":"57","author":"Murphy","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1177\/156482650903000109","article-title":"Antioxidant system for the preservation of Vitamin A in Ultra Rice","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10268.x","article-title":"Degradation of Vitamin A palmitate in corn flakes during storage","volume":"65","author":"Kim","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"192","article-title":"Stability of Vitamin A and provitamin A (carotenoids) in extrusion-cooking processing","volume":"74","author":"Lee","year":"1978","journal-title":"AICHE Symp. Ser."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2001.tb15193.x","article-title":"Stability of tocopherols and retinyl palmitate in snack extrudates","volume":"66","author":"Suknark","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"S181","article-title":"Development, stability, and sensory testing of microcapsules containing iron, iodine, and Vitamin A for use in food fortification","volume":"71","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1002\/ejlt.200900165","article-title":"Kinetic study of beta-carotene and lutein degradation in oils during heat treatment","volume":"112","author":"Achir","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1977.tb14515.x","article-title":"Effect of heat on the beta-carotene content of Nigerian palm oil","volume":"42","author":"Mudambi","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Wullschleger, R.D., Fulgoni, V.L., Lin, J.C., and Nielsen, S.R. (1992). Ready-to-Eat Cereal Products Enriched with beta-Carotene. (5270063), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"558","article-title":"Stability and nutrient contribution of beta-carotene added to selected bakery products","volume":"70","author":"Rogers","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"139","article-title":"Stability and contribution of beta-carotene added to whole wheat bread and crackers","volume":"72","author":"Ranhotra","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Lietz, G. (2000). Use of Red Palm Oil in Vitamin A Deficiency: Studies on its Analysis, Stability and Field Application. [PhD Thesis, Oxford Brookes University]."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/0308-8146(91)90068-Y","article-title":"Effect of processing on beta-carotene retention in crude palm oil and its products","volume":"42","author":"Manorama","year":"1991","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.1998.10718776","article-title":"Absorption, by humans, of beta-carotene from fortified soybean oil added to rice: Effect of health treatment","volume":"17","author":"Leonardo","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/12.5.380","article-title":"The effect of protein and fait supplements on Vitamin A-deficient Indonesian children","volume":"12","author":"Roels","year":"1963","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/20.12.1267","article-title":"Red palm oil in the prevention of Vitamin A deficiency. A trial on preschool children in Indonesia","volume":"20","author":"Lian","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/48.1.24","article-title":"Impact of Vitamin A supplementation through different dosages of red palm oil and retinol palmitates on preschool children","volume":"48","author":"Sivan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Seshadri, S. (1996). Use of Carotene Rich Foods to Combat Vitamin A Deficiency in India: A Multicentric Study, Nutrition Foundation of India."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/47.2.67","article-title":"Impact of \u03b2-carotene supplementation through red palm oil","volume":"47","author":"Sivan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-5-17","article-title":"The positive impact of red palm oil in school meals on Vitamin A status: Study in Burkina Faso","volume":"5","author":"Zeba","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/73.5.949","article-title":"Bioefficacy of \u03b2-carotene dissolved in oil studied in children in Indonesia","volume":"73","author":"West","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/74.4.501","article-title":"Comparison of the effects of supplemental red palm oil and sunflower oil on maternal Vitamin A status","volume":"74","author":"Lietz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1177\/156482650302400214","article-title":"Red palm oil supplementation: A feasible diet-based approach to improve the Vitamin A status of pregnant women and their infants","volume":"24","author":"Radhika","year":"2003","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1177\/156482650102200408","article-title":"Marketing of red palm oil as a food source of Vitamin A in Burkina Faso: A pilot Project involving women\u2019s groups","volume":"22","author":"Delisle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1079\/PHN2003502","article-title":"Red palm oil as a source of Vitamin A for mothers and children: Impact of a pilot project in Burkina Faso","volume":"6","author":"Zagre","year":"2003","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43S","DOI":"10.1177\/15648265130342S106","article-title":"The global, centralized approach of the GAIN Premix Facility has made oil fortification in Indonesia more affordable","volume":"34","author":"Jallier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"294","article-title":"Acute hypervitaminosis A in a young lady","volume":"19","author":"Khasru","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mymensingh Med. J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(91)90672-8","article-title":"Liver damage caused by therapeutic Vitamin A administration: Estimate of dose-related toxicity in 41 cases","volume":"100","author":"Geubel","year":"1991","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.2002.17.8.1349","article-title":"Retinol intake and bone mineral density in the elderly: The Rancho Bernardo Study","volume":"17","author":"Promislow","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.287.1.47","article-title":"Vitamin A intake and hip fractures among postmenopausal women","volume":"287","author":"Feskanich","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199511233332101","article-title":"Teratogenicity of high Vitamin A intake","volume":"333","author":"Rothman","year":"1995","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.39.1.399","article-title":"Teratology of retinoids","volume":"39","author":"Collins","year":"1999","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(86)90726-6","article-title":"Illingworth DR: Hepatic and dermatologic manifestations of chronic hypervitaminosis A in adults. Report of two cases","volume":"80","author":"Inkeles","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2004). Joint FAO\/WHO Expert Consultation on Human Vitamin and Mineral Requirements, World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(81)91196-7","article-title":"Free radicals and singlet oxygen scavengers: Reaction of a peroxy-radical with \u03b2-carotene, dipheyl furan and 1,4-diazobicyclo(2,2,2)-octane","volume":"98","author":"Packer","year":"1981","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9861(89)90467-0","article-title":"Lycopene as the most efficient biological carotenoid singlet oxygen quencher","volume":"274","author":"Kaiser","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a116264","article-title":"Serum retinol, \u03b2-carotene, Vitamin E and selenium as related to subsequent cancer of specific site","volume":"135","author":"Cornstock","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djk017","article-title":"Chemoprevention of precancerous gastric lesions with antioxidant vitamin supplementation: A randomized trial in a high-risk population","volume":"99","author":"Plummer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/85.18.1483","article-title":"Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: Supplementation with specific Vitamin\/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general populations","volume":"85","author":"Blot","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/92.23.1881","article-title":"Chemoprevention of gastric dysplasia: Randomized trial of antioxidant supplements and anti-helicobacter pylori therapy","volume":"92","author":"Correa","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(1994). The effect of Vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N. Engl. J. Med., 330, 1029\u20131035.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199404143301501"},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"2038s","article-title":"The \u03b2-carotene and retinol efficacy trial (CARET) for chemoprevention of lung cancer in high risk populations: Smokers and asbestos-expored workers","volume":"54","author":"Omenn","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/88.21.1560","article-title":"Alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study: Effects of base-line characteristics and study compliance","volume":"88","author":"Albanes","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/88.21.1550","article-title":"Risk factors for lung cancer and for intervention effects in CARET, the beta-carotene and retinol efficacy trial","volume":"88","author":"Omenn","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/S1040-8428(99)00074-8","article-title":"Prevention of lung cancer","volume":"33","author":"Goodman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.1993.11.7.1216","article-title":"Adjuvant treatment of stage I lung cancer with high-dose Vitamin A","volume":"11","author":"Pastorino","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(1997). Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective, American Institute for Cancer Research."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/134.1.221S","article-title":"Carotenoids in health and disease: Recent scientific evaluations, research recommendations and the consumer","volume":"134","author":"Cooper","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1079\/PHN2003543","article-title":"A review of the epidemiological evidence for the \u201cantioxidant hypothesis\u201d","volume":"7","author":"Stanner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2002). MRC\/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant Vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: A randomised placebo\u2014Controlled trial. Lancet, 306, 23\u201333."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199605023341801","article-title":"Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease","volume":"334","author":"Hennekens","year":"1996","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199605023341802","article-title":"Effects of a combination of \u03b2 carotene and Vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease","volume":"334","author":"Omenn","year":"1996","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/69.2.261","article-title":"Dietary antioxidants and risk of myocardial infarction in the elderly. The Rotterdam Study","volume":"69","author":"Geleijnse","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13637-9","article-title":"Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: Meta-analysis of randomised trials","volume":"361","author":"Vivekananthan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/5\/8\/3257\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:48:39Z","timestamp":1760219319000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/5\/8\/3257"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,15]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,8]]}},"alternative-id":["nu5083257"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu5083257","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,15]]}}}