{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T14:31:32Z","timestamp":1790951492729,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,25]],"date-time":"2017-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1490400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vitamin D deficiency (&lt;20 ng\/mL) and insufficiency (20\u201329 ng\/mL) are common among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) or undergoing dialysis. In addition to nutritional and sunlight exposure deficits, factors that affect vitamin D deficiency include race, sex, age, obesity and impaired vitamin D synthesis and metabolism. Serum 1,25(OH)2D levels also decrease progressively because of 25(OH)D deficiency, together with impaired availability of 25(OH)D by renal proximal tubular cells, high fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-23 and decreased functional renal tissue. As in the general population, this condition is associated with increased morbidity and poor outcomes. Together with the progressive decline of serum calcitriol, vitamin D deficiency leads to secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) and its complications, tertiary hyperparathyroidism and hypercalcemia, which require surgical parathyroidectomy or calcimimetics. Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (KDOQI) and Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) experts have recognized that vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency should be avoided in CKD and dialysis patients by using supplementation to prevent SHPT. Many vitamin D supplementation regimens using either ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol daily, weekly or monthly have been reported. The benefit of native vitamin D supplementation remains debatable because observational studies suggest that vitamin D receptor activator (VDRA) use is associated with better outcomes and it is more efficient for decreasing the serum parathormone (PTH) levels. Vitamin D has pleiotropic effects on the immune, cardiovascular and neurological systems and on antineoplastic activity. Extra-renal organs possess the enzymatic capacity to convert 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D. Despite many unanswered questions, much data support vitamin D use in renal patients. This article emphasizes the role of native vitamin D replacement during all-phases of CKD together with VDRA when SHPT persists.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9040328","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,27]],"date-time":"2017-03-27T10:49:10Z","timestamp":1490611750000},"page":"328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":294,"title":["Vitamin D in Chronic Kidney Disease and Dialysis Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Guillaume","family":"Jean","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NephroCare Tassin Charcot, Sainte Foy les Lyon, 69110, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean","family":"Souberbielle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service d\u2019explorations fonctionnelles, H\u00f4pital Necker-Enfants malades, AP-HP, Paris 75015, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Chazot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NephroCare Tassin Charcot, Sainte Foy les Lyon, 69110, France"},{"name":"F-CRIN, Investigation Network Initiative-Cardiovascular and Renal Clinical Trialist, Vandoeuvre-l\u00e8s-Nancy 54500, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra070553","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency","volume":"357","author":"Holick","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd3318","article-title":"Vitamin D, disease and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"9","author":"Plum","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2005.06.004","article-title":"Biological actions of extra-renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase and implications for chemoprevention and treatment","volume":"97","author":"Townsend","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2010.543","article-title":"Defective renal maintenance of the vitamin D endocrine system impairs vitamin D renoprotection: A downward spiral in kidney disease","volume":"79","author":"Dusso","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-6386(03)00905-3","article-title":"Bone metabolism and disease in chronic kidney disease","volume":"42","author":"Eknoyan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2010.06.009","article-title":"Vitamin D and musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer: Recommendations for clinical practice","volume":"9","author":"Souberbielle","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1608005","article-title":"Vitamin D Deficiency\u2014Is There Really a Pandemic?","volume":"375","author":"Manson","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-0385","article-title":"Endocrine Society. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline","volume":"96","author":"Holick","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clini. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2010.05.008","article-title":"14th Vitamin D Workshop consensus on vitamin D nutritional guidelines","volume":"121","author":"Henry","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e362","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-0051","article-title":"Prevalence and associations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency in US children: NHANES 2001\u20132004","volume":"124","author":"Kumar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.1999.0550031019.x","article-title":"Serum levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in nondialyzed patients with chronic renal failure","volume":"55","author":"Ishimura","year":"1999","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1989.64","article-title":"Metabolic clearance rate and production rate of calcitriol in uremia","volume":"35","author":"Dusso","year":"1989","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2016010066","article-title":"Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 Regulation by Systemic and Local Osteoblast-Synthesized 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D","volume":"28","author":"Karaplis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2000.00178.x","article-title":"Increased risk of hip fracture among patients with end-stage renal disease","volume":"58","author":"Alem","year":"2000","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"245","article-title":"Arrest of hyperparathyroid bone disease by the use of dihydrotachysterol in patients undergoing chronic hemodialysis","volume":"83","author":"Kaye","year":"1970","journal-title":"Trans. Assoc. Am. Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI111639","article-title":"Marked suppression of secondary hyperparathyroidism by intravenous administration of 1,25-dihydroxy-cholecalciferol in uremic patients","volume":"74","author":"Slatopolsky","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group (2009). KDIGO Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int., 76, S1\u2013S130."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1080\/13102818.2014.995415","article-title":"Relationship between vitamin D status and immunosuppressive therapy in kidney transplant recipients","volume":"29","author":"Filipov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.5414\/CN108182","article-title":"Vitamin D status and its association with mineral and bone disorder in a multi-ethnic chronic kidney disease population","volume":"82","author":"Ngai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2013.07.003","article-title":"Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and effects of supplementation with cholecalciferol in patients with chronic kidney disease","volume":"24","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2014.04.005","article-title":"Comparisons of serum vitamin D levels, status, and determinants in populations with and without chronic kidney disease not requiring renal dialysis: A 24-h urine collection population-based study","volume":"24","author":"Guessous","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"510","article-title":"Relative importance of the determinants of serum levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D in patients with chronic kidney disease","volume":"36","author":"Luna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nefrologia"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.4103\/1319-2442.182377","article-title":"Is there an association between Vitamin D level and inflammatory markers in hemodialysis patients? A cross-sectional study","volume":"27","author":"Mohiuddin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Saudi J. Kidney Dis. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2016.06.012","article-title":"Body adiposity predictors of vitamin D status in nondialyzed patients with chronic kidney disease: A cross-sectional analysis in a tropical climate city","volume":"33","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transproceed.2015.04.036","article-title":"Comparison of Serum Vitamin D Levels Among Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease, Patients in Dialysis, and Renal Transplant Patients","volume":"47","author":"Cankaya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transpl. Proc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v16i2.14","article-title":"Levels of vitamin D receptor and CYP24A1 in patients with end-stage renal disease","volume":"16","author":"Ye","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2003.00114.x","article-title":"Gene expression of vitamin D hydroxylase and megalin in the remnant kidney of nephrectomized rats","volume":"64","author":"Takemoto","year":"2003","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/114.7.1313","article-title":"Defective photoproduction of cholecalciferol in normal and uremic humans","volume":"114","author":"Jacob","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009080815","article-title":"Reduced hepatic synthesis of calcidiol in uremia","volume":"21","author":"Michaud","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492365","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/492365","article-title":"Vitamin D Binding Protein Is Not Involved in Vitamin D Deficiency in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"2015","author":"Kalousova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2014.02.015","article-title":"Estimated GFR and circulating 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 concentration: A participant-level analysis of 5 cohort studies and clinical trials","volume":"64","author":"Sachs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.5414\/CNP64288","article-title":"Serum 25(OH)-vitamin D levels and bone metabolism in patients on maintenance hemodialysis","volume":"64","author":"Mucsi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"333","article-title":"Relation between 25(OH)-vitamin D deficiency and markers of bone formation and resorption in haemodialysis patients","volume":"55","author":"Milinkovic","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Lab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-3764","article-title":"The combination of vitamin D deficiency and mild to moderate chronic kidney disease is associated with low bone mineral density and deteriorated femoral microarchitecture: Results from the KNHANES 2008-2011","volume":"99","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2015.08.007","article-title":"The \u201cDose-Effect\u201d Relationship Between 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Muscle Strength in Hemodialysis Patients Favors a Normal Threshold of 30 ng\/mL for Plasma 25-Hydroxyvitamin D","volume":"26","author":"Bataille","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2010.03821.x","article-title":"Association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D, somatic muscle weakness and falls risk in end-stage renal failure","volume":"73","author":"Boudville","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1111\/hdi.12316","article-title":"Association of low vitamin D levels with metabolic syndrome in hemodialysis patients","volume":"20","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.3109\/0886022X.2013.832308","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency, insulin resistance, and ventricular hypertrophy in the early stages of chronic kidney disease","volume":"36","author":"Lai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ren. Fail."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s40620-015-0236-7","article-title":"Atrial fibrillation and low vitamin D levels are associated with severe vascular calcifications in hemodialysis patients","volume":"29","author":"Fusaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"2250","article-title":"Vascular calcification and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in non-dialysis patients with chronic kidney disease stages 4 and 5","volume":"26","author":"Bosch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2006060573","article-title":"Mineral Metabolism and Arterial Functions in End-Stage Renal Disease: Potential Role of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Deficiency","volume":"18","author":"London","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G.L., Pi, H.C., Hao, L., Li, D.D., Wu, Y.G., and Dong, J. (2015). Vitamin D Status Is an Independent Risk Factor for Global Cognitive Impairment in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0143782"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2008.501","article-title":"Vitamin D levels and patient outcome in chronic kidney disease","volume":"75","author":"Ravani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2011.03.020","article-title":"Vitamin D status and mortality risk in CKD: A meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"58","author":"Pilz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"c204","DOI":"10.1159\/000321507","article-title":"Impact of Hypovitaminosis D and Alfacalcidol Therapy on Survival of Hemodialysis Patients: Results from the French ARNOS Study","volume":"118","author":"Jean","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephron Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-2421","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency predicts decline in kidney allograft function: A prospective cohort study","volume":"99","author":"Obi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2012060614","article-title":"Vitamin D status and outcomes after renal transplantation","volume":"24","author":"Bienaime","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1111\/sdi.12446","article-title":"Vitamin D and Clinical Outcomes in Dialysis","volume":"28","author":"Parikh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Dial."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2010.328","article-title":"Klotho deficiency is an early biomarker of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury and its replacement is protective","volume":"78","author":"Hu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009121311","article-title":"Klotho deficiency causes vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease","volume":"22","author":"Hu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2009.175","article-title":"Renoprotective effects of vitamin D analogs","volume":"78","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2013-1252","article-title":"Vitamin D is a regulator of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and arterial stiffness in mice","volume":"28","author":"Andrukhova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.5414\/CN108796","article-title":"Vitamin D levels, vitamin D supplementation, and prognosis in patients with chronic kidney disease","volume":"86","author":"Namir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2012.04.014","article-title":"Associations of plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations with death and progression to maintenance dialysis in patients with advanced kidney disease","volume":"60","author":"Kendrick","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2012.02.634","article-title":"Intact fibroblast growth factor 23 levels predict incident cardiovascular event before but not after the start of dialysis","volume":"50","author":"Nakano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2014.04.020","article-title":"Biochemical parameters after cholecalciferol repletion in hemodialysis: Results From the VitaDial randomized trial","volume":"64","author":"Massart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3430","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-0241","article-title":"Comparison of daily, weekly, and monthly vitamin D3 in ethanol dosing protocols for two months in elderly hip fracture patients","volume":"93","author":"Segal","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mager, D.R., Jackson, S.T., Hoffmann, M.R., Jindal, K., and Senior, P.A. (2016). Vitamin D3 supplementation, bone health and quality of life in adults with diabetes and chronic kidney disease: Results of an open label randomized clinical trial. Clin. Nutr.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.05.012"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3799","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp370","article-title":"Monthly cholecalciferol administration in haemodialysis patients: A simple and efficient strategy for vitamin D supplementation","volume":"24","author":"Jean","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zitt, E., Sprenger-Mahr, H., Mundle, M., and Lhotta, K. (2015). Efficacy and safety of body weight-adapted oral cholecalciferol substitution in dialysis patients with vitamin D deficiency. BMC Nephrol., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-015-0116-3"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s40620-015-0196-y","article-title":"Efficiency of delivery observed treatment in hemodialysis patients: The example of the native vitamin D therapy","volume":"29","author":"Delanaye","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s40620-015-0237-6","article-title":"Comparison of two different vitamin D supplementation regimens with oral calcifediol in kidney transplant patients","volume":"29","author":"Barros","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gft001","article-title":"Cholecalciferol in haemodialysis patients: A randomized, double-blind, proof-of-concept and safety study","volume":"28","author":"Delanaye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4016","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfn367","article-title":"High-dose cholecalciferol to correct vitamin D deficiency in haemodialysis patients","volume":"23","author":"Tokmak","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2008.549","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D supplementation on the calcium-phosphate balance in renal transplant patients","volume":"75","author":"Courbebaisse","year":"2009","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i6583","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i6583","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data","volume":"356","author":"Martineau","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4619","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-2653","article-title":"Clinical review: The role of the parent compound vitamin D with respect to metabolism and function: Why clinical dose intervals can affect clinical outcomes","volume":"98","author":"Hollis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"3675","article-title":"How to optimize vitamin D supplementation to prevent cancer, based on cellular adaptation and hydroxylase enzymology","volume":"29","author":"Vieth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"b3692","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.b3692","article-title":"Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"339","author":"Staehelin","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1109617","article-title":"A pooled analysis of vitamin D dose requirements for fracture prevention","volume":"367","author":"Willett","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2010.594","article-title":"Annual high-dose oral vitamin D and falls and fractures in older women: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"303","author":"Sanders","year":"2010","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2015.7148","article-title":"Monthly High-Dose Vitamin D Treatment for the Prevention of Functional Decline: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"176","author":"Orav","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1001\/archinternmed.2010.67","article-title":"Effect of high-dosage cholecalciferol and extended physiotherapy on complications after hip fracture: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"170","author":"Platz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03940510","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation in chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized controlled trials","volume":"6","author":"Kandula","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.040642","article-title":"High-dose cholecalciferol reduces parathyroid hormone in patients with early chronic kidney disease: A pilot, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"96","author":"Alvarez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.2147\/IJNRD.S90968","article-title":"Vitamin D status and cholecalciferol supplementation in chronic kidney disease patients: An Italian cohort report","volume":"8","author":"Cupisti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Nephrol. Renovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-4758.2010.00472.x","article-title":"Prevention of secondary hyperparathyroidism in hemodialysis patients: The key role of native vitamin D supplementation","volume":"14","author":"Jean","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1159\/000369939","article-title":"Modified-release calcifediol effectively controls secondary hyperparathyroidism associated with vitamin D insufficiency in chronic kidney disease","volume":"40","author":"Sprague","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.06910714","article-title":"Nutritional vitamin D supplementation in dialysis: A randomized trial","volume":"10","author":"Bhan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2014.08.004","article-title":"Vitamin D therapy in kidney disease: More vitamin D is necessary","volume":"64","author":"Tangpricha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1159\/000354717","article-title":"Influence of cholecalciferol supplementation in hemodialysis patients on monocyte subsets: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial","volume":"123","author":"Seibert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nephron Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.224","article-title":"Oral cholecalciferol decreases albuminuria and urinary TGF-\u03b21 in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy on established renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibition","volume":"80","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-015-3220-5","article-title":"Effect of cholecalciferol on local arterial stiffness and endothelial dysfunction in children with chronic kidney disease","volume":"31","author":"Aytac","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.04.014","article-title":"Effect of cholecalciferol on vitamin D-regulatory proteins in monocytes and on inflammatory markers in dialysis patients: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"35","author":"Meireles","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1111\/hdi.12439","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D supplementation on endothelial dysfunction in hemodialysis patients","volume":"21","author":"Karakas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfu122","article-title":"Effect of oral vitamin D analogs on mortality and cardiovascular outcomes among adults with chronic kidney disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Mann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2012.17304","article-title":"Genetic variants and associations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations with major clinical outcomes","volume":"308","author":"Levin","year":"2012","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-6009(90)90023-9","article-title":"The mechanisms of vitamin D toxicity","volume":"11","author":"Vieth","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bone Miner."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/69.5.842","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety","volume":"69","author":"Vieth","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199204303261801","article-title":"Hypervitaminosis D associated with drinking milk","volume":"326","author":"Jacobus","year":"1992","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1864","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.080608","article-title":"Serum vitamin D measurement may not reflect what you give to your patients","volume":"23","author":"Cavalier","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5387","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2004-0360","article-title":"Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans","volume":"89","author":"Armas","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2007-2308","article-title":"Vitamin D2 is as effective as vitamin D3 in maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D","volume":"93","author":"Holick","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clini. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2015.16","article-title":"Vitamin D3 seems more appropriate than D2 to sustain adequate levels of 25OHD: A pharmacokinetic approach","volume":"69","author":"Oliveri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2074","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451600427X","article-title":"Cholecalciferol v. ergocalciferol for 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) repletion in chronic kidney disease: A randomised clinical trial","volume":"116","author":"Wetmore","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4339","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2012-4287","article-title":"Bioavailability of vitamin D(2) and D(3) in healthy volunteers, a randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"98","author":"Lehmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clini. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-88-6-774","article-title":"1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol effects in chronic dialysis. A double-blind controlled study","volume":"88","author":"Berl","year":"1978","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lessard, M., Ouimet, D., Leblanc, M., Nadeau-Fredette, A.C., Bell, R., Lafrance, J.P., and Schrier, R.W. (2014). Comparison of oral and intravenous alfacalcidol in chronic hemodialysis patients. BMC Nephrol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2369-15-27"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2852","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp144","article-title":"Cinacalcet and achievement of the NKF\/K-DOQITM recommended target values for bone and mineral metabolism in real-world clinical practice\u2014the ECHO observational study","volume":"24","author":"Urena","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5001514","article-title":"Survival predictability of time-varying indicators of bone disease in maintenance hemodialysis patients","volume":"70","author":"Kuwae","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5001542","article-title":"Changes in serum calcium, phosphate, and PTH and the risk of death in incident dialysis patients: A longitudinal study","volume":"70","author":"Melamed","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa022536","article-title":"Survival of patients undergoing hemodialysis with paricalcitol or calcitriol therapy","volume":"349","author":"Teng","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1858","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5001868","article-title":"Mortality risk among hemodialysis patients receiving different vitamin D analogs","volume":"70","author":"Tentori","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Shi, H., Jia, J., Li, D., and Lin, S. (2013). Vitamin D supplementation and mortality risk in chronic kidney disease: A meta-analysis of 20 observational studies. BMC Nephrol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2369-14-199"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfg513","article-title":"Lower risk for cardiovascular mortality in oral 1alpha-hydroxy vitamin D3 users in a haemodialysis population","volume":"19","author":"Shoji","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfw205","article-title":"Comparison of oral versus intravenous vitamin D receptor activator in reducing infection-related mortality in hemodialysis patients: The Q-Cohort Study","volume":"31","author":"Tanaka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/nep.12505","article-title":"The Effect of Active Vitamin D on Cardiovascular Outcomes in Predialysis Chronic Kidney Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1159\/000445507","article-title":"Predialysis Vitamin D Receptor Activator Treatment and Cardiovascular Events after Dialysis Initiation: A Multicenter Observational Study","volume":"133","author":"Inaguma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.226","article-title":"No difference between alfacalcidol and paricalcitol in the treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in hemodialysis patients: A randomized crossover trial","volume":"80","author":"Hansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-014-0842-7","article-title":"Low-dose cholecalciferol supplementation and dual vitamin D therapy in haemodialysis patients","volume":"47","author":"Safranek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2009.11.011","article-title":"25-Hydroxyvitamin D(3) is an agonistic vitamin D receptor ligand","volume":"118","author":"Lou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfu311","article-title":"The induction of C\/EBP\u03b2 contributes to vitamin D inhibition of ADAM17 expression and parathyroid hyperplasia in kidney disease","volume":"30","author":"Arcidiacono","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfw080","article-title":"Con: Nutritional vitamin D replacement in chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease","volume":"31","author":"Agarwal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfw081","article-title":"Moderator\u2019s view: Vitamin D deficiency treatment in advanced chronic kidney disease: A close look at the emperor\u2019s clothes","volume":"31","author":"Zoccali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/9\/4\/328\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:31:17Z","timestamp":1760207477000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/9\/4\/328"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,25]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]}},"alternative-id":["nu9040328"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu9040328","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,25]]}}}