{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T06:23:27Z","timestamp":1768890207491,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]],"date-time":"2021-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Donkeys may be susceptible to many pathological agents and may act as carriers of pathogens for other animal species and humans. This study evaluated the occurrence of potentially abortifacient apicomplexan protozoa DNA in blood and milk samples collected at different time periods during lactation (1, 6, and 10 months) from 33 healthy dairy jennies. A total of 73 blood and 73 milk samples were used for DNA extraction and analysis. Blood specimens from 11\/33 (33%) jennies scored positive for Theileria equi, while milk samples scored negative. Blood and milk of 3\/33 jennies yielded DNA of Toxoplasma gondii at 6 months (n. 1) and 10 months (n. 2) after parturition. Neospora caninum DNA was found in four milk and in five blood samples only at one month after parturition. This study is the first report about the presence of N. caninum DNA in milk of naturally infected jennies. Moreover, the excretion of N. caninum DNA in some of these jennies at 30 days from the parturition may suggest a possible occurrence of an endogenous cycle, while the presence of T. gondii DNA in the milk collected at 6 and 10 months after parturition may be suggestive of a discontinuous excretion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10020111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]],"date-time":"2021-01-22T11:13:53Z","timestamp":1611314033000},"page":"111","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Apicomplexan Protozoa Responsible for Reproductive Disorders: Occurrence of DNA in Blood and Milk of Donkeys (Equus asinus) and Minireview of the Related Literature"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6459-2151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Perrucci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lisa","family":"Guardone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8656-3442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iolanda","family":"Altomonte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1098-6750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Salari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9095-6326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simona","family":"Nardoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0847-2841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mina","family":"Martini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3301-3778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Mancianti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2012.11.005","article-title":"Influence of season on testicular morphometry and semen characteristics in Martina Franca jackasses","volume":"79","author":"Carluccio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2019.08.005","article-title":"Donkey and Mule Welfare","volume":"35","author":"Davis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.13-0352","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Italy","volume":"76","author":"Machacova","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2017.11.008","article-title":"The current situation and trend of donkey industry in Europe","volume":"65","author":"Camillo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"European Commission (2004). Regulation (EC) No 853\/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 Laying down Specific Hygiene Rules for on the Hygiene of Foodstuffs. Off. J. Eur. Union, Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legalcontent\/EN\/TXT\/PDF\/?uri=CELEX:32004R0853&from=EN."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-165","article-title":"Detection and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in the blood and milk of naturally infected donkeys (Equus asinus)","volume":"7","author":"Mancianti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-168","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in horses and donkeys in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China","volume":"6","author":"Miao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2013.09.027","article-title":"Seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) and isolation of T. gondii from farm cats","volume":"199","author":"Dubey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Alvarado-Esquivel, D., and Dubey, J.P. (2015). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) in Durango, Mexico slaughtered for human consumption. BMC Vet. Res., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-015-0325-9"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"606","article-title":"Seroprevalence and risk factors of Neospora spp. and Toxoplasma gondii infections among horses and donkeys in Nigeria, West Africa","volume":"62","author":"Kamani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2018.03.008","article-title":"First genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii infection in donkey meat slaughtered for human consumption in Shandong province, eastern China","volume":"61","author":"Cong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2006.07.016","article-title":"Association between the presence of serum antibodies against Neospora spp.","volume":"142","author":"Villalobos","year":"2006","journal-title":"and fetal loss in equines Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.08.017","article-title":"Molecular and serological detection of tick-borne pathogens in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Italy","volume":"173","author":"Veronesi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2014.03.022","article-title":"Association of antibodies against Neospora caninum in mares with reproductive problems and presence of seropositive dogs as a risk factor","volume":"202","author":"Abreu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2013.08.013","article-title":"Seroprevalence and risk factors of Neospora spp. in donkeys from Southern Italy","volume":"198","author":"Guccione","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2018018","article-title":"Prevalence of Neospora spp. in donkeys in China","volume":"25","author":"Cong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tirosh-Levy, S., Steinman, A., Minderigiu, A., Arieli, O., Savitski, I., Fleiderovitz, L., Edery, N., Schvartz, G., and Mazuz, M.L. (2020). High exposure to Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora spp. in donkeys in Israel: Serological survey and case reports. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10101921"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2018.09.007","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for IgG antibodies to Neospora spp. in three types of equids from Southern Punjab, Pakistan","volume":"188","author":"Nazir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2015.01.017","article-title":"Tick-borne infections in horses from Tuscany, Italy","volume":"35","author":"Ebani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.01.011","article-title":"Seroprevalence of equine piroplasms and host-related factors associated with infection in Greece","volume":"169","author":"Kouam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.11.069","article-title":"Molecular and serological detection of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Brazil","volume":"186","author":"Machado","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2013.03.189","article-title":"Equine piroplasmosis","volume":"33","author":"Rothschild","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"113","article-title":"Theileria equi infection causing abortion in a mare in Brazil","volume":"8","author":"Paludo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tirosh-Levy, S., Gottlieb, Y., Mimoun, L., Mazuz, M.L., and Steinman, A. (2020). Transplacental transmission of Theileria equi is not a common cause of abortions and infection of foals in Israel. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10020341"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onyiche, T.E., Suganuma, K., Igarashi, I., Yokoyama, N., Xuan, X., and Thekisoe, O. (2019). A review on equine piroplasmosis: Epidemiology, vector ecology, risk factors, host immunity, diagnosis and control. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16101736"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2012.06.012","article-title":"Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Babesia caballi and Theileria equi infection in equids","volume":"195","author":"Adaszek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"100449","article-title":"An epidemiological survey of Theileria equi parasite in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Egypt","volume":"21","author":"AbouLaila","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2020.103164","article-title":"Molecular analysis and risk factors associated with Theileria equi infection in domestic donkeys and mules of Punjab, Pakistan","volume":"92","author":"Shah","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1863-2378.2007.00989.x","article-title":"Observed prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in domestic animals in Sicily, Italy during 2003\u20132005","volume":"54","author":"Torina","year":"2007","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S223","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-008-9155-6","article-title":"Neospora spp. infection associated with equine abortion and\/or stillbirth rate","volume":"32","author":"Veronesi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2014.09.025","article-title":"Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Babesia caballi and Theileria equi infections in donkeys from Southern Italy","volume":"202","author":"Piantedosi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"231","article-title":"Molecular detection of Theileria equi in donkeys (Equus asinus) in a selected site in central Italy","volume":"22","author":"Papini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Large Anim. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laus, F., Spaterna, A., Faillace, V., Veronesi, F., Ravagnan, S., Berib\u00e9, F., Cerquetella, M., Meligrana, M., and Tesei, B. (2015). Clinical investigation on Theileria equi and Babesia caballi infections in Italian donkeys. BMC Vet. Res., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-015-0411-z"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1948.02030030317003","article-title":"Experimental toxoplasmosis. I. Transmission of the infection in utero and through the milk of lactating female mice","volume":"76","author":"Eichenwald","year":"1948","journal-title":"Am. J. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ), Koutsoumanis, K., Allende, A., Alvarez-Ordonez, A., Bolton, D., Bover-Cid, S., Chemaly, M., Davies, R., De Cesare, A., and Herman, L. (2018). Public health risks associated with food-borne parasites. EFSA J., 16, 5495.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2018.5495"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2924","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2015.1084993","article-title":"Toxoplasma infection and milk consumption: Meta-analysis of assumptions and evidences","volume":"57","author":"Boughattas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4017(86)90106-8","article-title":"A review of toxoplasmosis in cattle","volume":"22","author":"Dubey","year":"1986","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"171","article-title":"Seasonal and age distribution of Toxoplasma gondii in milk of naturally infected animal species and dairy samples Egypt","volume":"51","author":"Abadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2012.1311","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in raw caprine, ovine, buffalo, bovine, and camel milk using cell cultivation, cat bioassay, capture ELISA, and PCR methods in Iran","volume":"10","author":"Dehkordi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Dubey, J.P. (2010). Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans, CRC Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-14-167","article-title":"Detection and survival of Toxoplasma gondii in milk and cheese from experimentally infected goats","volume":"77","author":"Dubey","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(75)80825-0","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis in an infant fed unpasteurized goat milk","volume":"87","author":"Riemann","year":"1975","journal-title":"J Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1982.03330140038029","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis infection associated with raw goat\u2019s milk","volume":"248","author":"Sacks","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02761984000300007","article-title":"Toxoplasmose humana adquirida atrav\u00e9s da ingest\u00e3o de leite de cabra","volume":"79","year":"1984","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.3109\/00365549009027060","article-title":"Simultaneous diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in goats and goat owner\u2019s family","volume":"22","author":"Skinner","year":"1990","journal-title":"Scand. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.2478\/s11756-010-0070-2","article-title":"Prevalence estimation and genotypization of Toxoplasma gondii in goats","volume":"5","author":"Spisak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biologia"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12160","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in the milk of naturally infected goats in the Northeast of Brazil","volume":"62","author":"Bezerra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8201","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.8201","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in sheep and goat milk in Northwest of Iran by PCR-RFLP","volume":"6","author":"Tavassoli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Jundishapur J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905326","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/905326","article-title":"Seroprevalence, detection of DNA in blood and milk, and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in a goat population in Italy","volume":"2013","author":"Mancianti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.29","article-title":"Molecular prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in goats\u2019 milk and seroprevalence in Northwest Tunisia","volume":"2","author":"Amairia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"145","article-title":"Occurrence of anti- Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and parasite DNA in raw milk of sheep and goats of local breeds reared in Northeastern Brazil","volume":"12","author":"Alves","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017.023","DOI":"10.14411\/fp.2017.023","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in goats from the south-west region of Poland and the detection of T. gondii DNA in goat milk","volume":"64","author":"Sroka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Folia Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2018.1262-1265","article-title":"Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in raw goat, sheep, and camel milk in Upper Egypt","volume":"11","author":"Saad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06306-w","article-title":"Detection and genotypic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii DNA within the milk of Mongolian livestock","volume":"118","author":"Iacobucci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"456","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites in the milk of experimentally infected lactating she-camels","volume":"5","author":"Ishag","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Anim. Vet. Adv."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2016.02.996","article-title":"Camel\u2019s milk as a source of human toxoplasmosis in Butana area-Sudan","volume":"45","author":"Medani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2020.106123","article-title":"Zoonotic risks of pathogens from sheep and their milk borne transmission","volume":"189","author":"Heuvelink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2007.07.020","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii in sheep from the Campania region (Italy)","volume":"149","author":"Fusco","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.12.007","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in the milk of naturally infected ewes","volume":"177","author":"Camossi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2014.12.002","article-title":"DNA detection of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep milk and blood samples in relation to phase of infection","volume":"208","author":"Luptakova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0127-2014","article-title":"Epidemiological factors associated with seropositivity for toxoplasmosis in pregnant women from Gurupi, State of Tocantins, Brazil","volume":"47","author":"Vinaud","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"8658","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in naturally infected sheep\u2019s milk","volume":"14","author":"Maciel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genet. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"6501","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii and pre-treatment protocols for Polymerase Chain Reaction analysis of milk samples: A field trial in sheep from Southern Italy","volume":"6","author":"Vismarra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ital. J. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2014.1786","article-title":"Comments on \u201cDetection of Toxoplasma gondii in raw caprine, ovine, buffalo, bovine, and camel milk using cell cultivation, cat bioassay, capture ELISA, and PCR methods in Iran\u201d","volume":"11","author":"Dubey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2019.104738","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii in naturally infected goats: Monitoring of specific IgG levels in serum and milk during lactation and parasitic DNA detection in milk","volume":"170","author":"Gazzonis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2005.11.004","article-title":"Pathogenesis of bovine neosporosis","volume":"134","author":"Dubey","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2003.41.1.1","article-title":"Review of Neospora caninum and neosporosis in animals","volume":"41","author":"Dubey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-018-0601-3","article-title":"Endogenous transplacental transmission of Neospora caninum during successive pregnancies across three generations of naturally infected sheep","volume":"49","author":"Calvo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.2307\/3283962","article-title":"Vertical transmission of Neospora caninum in mice","volume":"81","author":"Cole","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-883R.1","article-title":"Comparative effect of Neospora caninum infection in BALB\/c mice at three different gestation periods","volume":"92","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-006-0288-7","article-title":"The first detection of Neospora caninum DNA in the colostrum of infected cows","volume":"100","author":"Moskwa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"138","article-title":"The suitability of milk in detection of Neospora caninum infection in cows","volume":"48","author":"Moskwa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(98)00110-6","article-title":"Oral Neospora caninum inoculation of neonatal calves","volume":"28","author":"Uggla","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1053\/rvsc.2001.0457","article-title":"Experimental studies on the transmission of Neospora caninum between cattle","volume":"70","author":"Davison","year":"2001","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2005.03.018","article-title":"Fatal experimental transplacental Babesia gibsoni infections in dogs","volume":"35","author":"Fukumoto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.5604\/12321966.1120590","article-title":"The first evidence for vertical transmission of Babesia canis in a litter of Central Asian shepherd dogs","volume":"21","author":"Mierzejewska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1323-x","article-title":"Mechanical transfer of Theileria orientalis: Possible roles of biting arthropods, colostrum and husbandry practices in disease transmission","volume":"9","author":"Hammer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1080\/1828051X.2019.1623094","article-title":"A multi-approach study of the performance of dairy donkey during lactation: Preliminary results","volume":"18","author":"Salari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ital. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcp.2009.11.001","article-title":"A comparison of six methods for genomic DNA extraction suitable for PCR-based genotyping applications using ovine milk samples","volume":"24","author":"Psifidi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Probes."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2008.12.005","article-title":"Diversity of Babesia and Theileria species in symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs in Croatia","volume":"39","author":"Beck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2850","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.34.11.2850-2852.1996","article-title":"Diagnosis of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infection by PCR and DNA hybridization immunoassay","volume":"34","author":"Zimmermann","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"634","article-title":"Comparison of PCR detection methods for B1, P30, and 18S rDNA genes of Toxoplasma gondii in aqueous humor","volume":"41","author":"Jones","year":"2000","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/2\/111\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:14:01Z","timestamp":1760159641000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/2\/111"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens10020111"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens10020111","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]}}}