{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T01:38:42Z","timestamp":1790645922195,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":136,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bacterial internalization is a strategy that non-intracellular microorganisms use to escape the host immune system and survive inside the human body. Among bacterial species, Staphylococcus aureus showed the ability to interact with and infect osteoblasts, causing osteomyelitis as well as bone and joint infection, while also becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotic therapy and a reservoir of bacteria that can make the infection difficult to cure. Despite being a serious issue in orthopedic surgery, little is known about the mechanisms that allow bacteria to enter and survive inside the osteoblasts, due to the lack of consistent experimental models. In this review, we describe the current knowledge about S. aureus internalization mechanisms and various aspects of the interaction between bacteria and osteoblasts (e.g., best experimental conditions, bacteria-induced damages and immune system response), focusing on studies performed using the MG-63 osteoblastic cell line, the best traditional (2D) model for the study of this phenomenon to date. At the same time, as it has been widely demonstrated that 2D culture systems are not completely indicative of the dynamic environment in vivo, and more recent 3D models\u2014representative of bone infection\u2014have also been investigated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10020239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T20:54:08Z","timestamp":1613768048000},"page":"239","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Staphylococcus aureus Internalization in Osteoblast Cells: Mechanisms, Interactions and Biochemical Processes. What Did We Learn from Experimental Models?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0653-9560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Stracquadanio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Molecular Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory (MMARLab), Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2451-1158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicol\u00f2","family":"Musso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Molecular Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory (MMARLab), Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelita","family":"Costantino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Interuniversity Consortium for Biotechnology, Area di Ricerca, Padriciano, 34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lorenzo Mattia","family":"Lazzaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Molecular Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory (MMARLab), Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1594-7427","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Stefani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Molecular Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory (MMARLab), Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dafne","family":"Bongiorno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Molecular Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory (MMARLab), Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16727-5","article-title":"Osteomyelitis","volume":"364","author":"Lew","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1006\/mpat.1995.0075","article-title":"Internalization of Staphylococcus aureus by cultured osteoblasts","volume":"19","author":"Hudson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Microb. 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