{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T09:08:55Z","timestamp":1790413735925,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,12]],"date-time":"2021-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623456000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the current status of rabies in Europe, with special emphasis on Croatia and Southeast and East Europe. Due to the systematic implementation of a rabies eradication program by oral vaccination of wild animals, by the end of the 20th century, most West and Central European countries were rabies-free. The EU goal was to eradicate rabies in wildlife and domestic animals by 2020. No matter how achievable the goal seemed to be, the disease is still present in the eastern part of the EU, as was notified in 2020 by two member states\u2014Poland and Romania. Croatia has been rabies-free for the last seven years but given that it borders a non-EU country in which a case of rabies was confirmed in 2020, it will continue to contribute to the maintenance of the rabies-free region. A rabies-free EU can only be achieved by continuous oral vaccination, coordination and a regional approach. The prevention of reintroductions from bordering countries in which rabies has not been eradicated yet, and the support for the eradication efforts made by these countries, are goals still pending.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10060742","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]],"date-time":"2021-06-14T22:25:46Z","timestamp":1623709546000},"page":"742","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Current Status of Rabies and Its Eradication in Eastern and Southeastern Europe"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1559-9020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivana","family":"Lojki\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Rabies and General Virology, Department of Virology, Croatian Veterinary Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7816-3534","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivana","family":"\u0160imi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Molecular Virology, Division of Molecular Medicine, Ru\u0111er Bo\u0161kovi\u0107 Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomislav","family":"Bedekovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Rabies and General Virology, Department of Virology, Croatian Veterinary Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6660-7089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nina","family":"Kre\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for Rabies and General Virology, Department of Virology, Croatian Veterinary Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO\/Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases (2020, May 28). Zero by 30: The Global Strategic Plan to End Human Deaths from Dog-Mediated Rabies by 2030. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/rabies\/resources\/9789241513838\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"European Commission (EC) (2016). Overview on Current EU Situation in Relation to EU Co-Funded Veterinary Programmes and Proposals as Regards Founding Priorities for 2018\u20132020, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-80-10-2545","article-title":"Ecology and evolution of rabies virus in Europe","volume":"80","author":"Bourhy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(98)00446-0","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of fox rabies in Europe","volume":"17","author":"Pastoret","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"King, A., Fooks, A.R., Aubert, M., and Wandeler, A.I. (2004). Rabies in France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Switzerland. Historical Perspective of Rabies in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, O.I.E."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S649","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/10.Supplement_4.S649","article-title":"Oral immunization of wildlife against rabies: Concept and first field experiments","volume":"10","author":"Wandeler","year":"1988","journal-title":"Rev. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, T.F., Schr\u00f6der, R., Wysocki, P., Mettenleiter, T.C., and Freuling, C.M. (2015). Spatio-Temporal Use of Oral Rabies Vaccines in Fox Rabies Elimination Programmes in Europe. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003953"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.37.2.2811","article-title":"Rabies control in Europe: An overview of past, current and future strategies","volume":"37","author":"Freuling","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"European Commission (EC) (2002). The Oral Vaccination of Foxes against Rabies, Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare Adopted on 23 October 2002, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1038\/289765a0","article-title":"Population dynamics of fox rabies in Europe","volume":"289","author":"Anderson","year":"1981","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-39.2.278","article-title":"Modeling control of rabies outbreaks in red fox populations to evaluate culling, vaccination, and vaccination combined with fertility control","volume":"39","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Wild Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) (2015). Update on oral vaccination of foxes and raccoon dogs against rabies. EFSA J., 7, 4164."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"OIE Manual for Diagnostic Test and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (2019)\u2014Chapter 3.1.17 (2020, September 02). Rabies (Infection with Rabies Virus and other Lyssaviruses). Available online: https:\/\/www.oie.int\/standard-setting\/terrestrial-manual\/access-online\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0450.2004.00801.x","article-title":"Efficacy of oral vaccination in the final stage of fox rabies elimination in Switzerland","volume":"51","author":"Bugnon","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. B Infect. Dis. Vet. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"67E","article-title":"Development of harmonised schemes for monitoring and reporting of rabies in animals in the European Union","volume":"7","author":"Cliquet","year":"2010","journal-title":"EFSA Supporting Publ."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"10","article-title":"Elimination of rabies in the Czech Republic by oral vaccination of foxes","volume":"29","author":"Matouch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rabies Bull. Eur."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Dodet, B.F.A., Muller, T., and Tordo, N. (2008). Rabies surveillance in Poland (1992\u20132006). Towards the Elimination of Rabies in Eurasia, Karger."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"273","article-title":"The financial challenge of keeping a large region rabies-free\u2014The EU example","volume":"131","author":"Freuling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"5","article-title":"The European Union strategy for external cooperation with neighbouring countries on rabies control","volume":"35","author":"Demetriou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rabies Bull. Eur."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bedekovi\u0107, T., Lohman Jankovi\u0107, I., \u0160imi\u0107, I., Kre\u0161i\u0107, N., Lojki\u0107, I., Su\u010dec, I., Robardet, E., and Cliquet, F. (2018). Control and elimination of rabies in Croatia. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204115"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"16","article-title":"Current status of Rabies in Yugoslavia with emphasis on Croatia","volume":"55","year":"1985","journal-title":"Vet. Arhiv."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"139","article-title":"Ten years of sylvatic rabies in Croatia","volume":"18","year":"1987","journal-title":"Vet. Stanica"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1","article-title":"Silvatic Rabies in Croatia: Appearance, spreading and current situation","volume":"16","year":"1996","journal-title":"Infekt. Glasnik"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"\u010ca\u010d, \u017d. (2003). Success of Oral Vaccination of Foxes against Rabies by Evaluation of Their Immune Status. [Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb]. (In Croatian)."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"5","article-title":"Bites of a rabid wolf in 67-old man in north-eastern part of Croatia","volume":"33","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rabies Bull. Eur."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2013.03.051","article-title":"The introduction of fox rabies into Italy (2008\u20132011) was due to two viral genetic groups with distinct phylogeographic patterns","volume":"17","author":"Fusaro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2002.130473","article-title":"Recurrence of animal rabies, Greece, 2012","volume":"20","author":"Tasioudi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2021, January 14). Rabies Bulletin Europe Queries. Available online: https:\/\/www.who-rabies-bulletin.org\/site-page\/queries."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2021, February 24). Rabies Bulletin Europe Queries. Available online: https:\/\/www.who-rabies-bulletin.org\/news\/resurgence-fox-rabies-formerly-freed-area-poland."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, February 24). Rabies Bulletin Europe Queries. Available online: https:\/\/www.who-rabies-bulletin.org\/news\/france-reports-imported-rabid-dog."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2020, October 16). Fourth Travel-Related Rabies Case Reported in the EU 2019 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/news-events\/fourth-travel-related-rabies-case-reported-eu-2019."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000158","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.38.2000158","article-title":"Prevention of human rabies: A challenge for the European Union and the European Economic Area","volume":"25","author":"Gossner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2020, September 10). Report of the Standing Group of Experts on Rabies in Europe under the GF-TADs umbrella. In Proceedings of the 2nd Meeting (SGE RAB2). Available online: https:\/\/rr-europe.oie.int\/en\/events\/sge-rab2-2nd-meeting-of-the-standing-groups-of-experts-on-rabies-for-europe\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Re-Emergence of Rabies in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2020, June 05). Rabies Bulletin Europe. Available online: https:\/\/www.who-rabies-bulletin.org\/news\/re-emergence-rabies-bosnia-herzegovina."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2021, April 14). Available online: https:\/\/www.pasterovzavod.rs\/en\/rabies-surveillance-information-for-animals\/."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u010cerne, D., Hostnik, P., and Toplak, I. (2021). The Successful Elimination of Sylvatic Rabies Using Oral Vaccination of Foxes in Slovenia. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030405"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Polupan, I. (2021, January 20). Update on Rabies Surveillance and Control Program in Ukraine. Proceedings of the EURL Workshop for Rabies, Available online: https:\/\/sitesv2.anses.fr\/en\/minisite\/rabies\/former-workshops."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"European Commission SANTE-2017\u201411939 (2020, September 02). Report on the Task Force Meeting of the Rabies Subgroup, Bucharest, Romania 2\u20134 October 2017. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/food\/sites\/food\/files\/animals\/docs\/diseases_erad_rb_report_rou_201710.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.10.012","article-title":"Evidence for trans-border movement of rabies by wildlife reservoirs between countries in the Balkan Peninsular","volume":"120","author":"Johnson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1706.101154","article-title":"Imported Rabies, European Union and Switzerland, 2001\u20132010","volume":"17","author":"Johnson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2207.151733","article-title":"Travel-Associated Rabies in Pets and Residual Rabies Risk, Western Europe","volume":"22","author":"Cliquet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2020, October 26). OIE WAHIS Database. Available online: https:\/\/www.oie.int\/wahis_2\/public\/wahid.php\/Countryinformation\/Countryreports."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1467","article-title":"Identifying reservoirs of infection: A conceptual and practical challenge","volume":"8","author":"Haydon","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.e8619","article-title":"Clinical rabies in cattle imported into Croatia","volume":"172","author":"Lemo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Record"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"199","article-title":"A model of the spatial spread of silvatic rabies on Croatian territory over the period of thirty years","volume":"41","author":"Slavica","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Stanica"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34825","DOI":"10.3897\/BDJ.7.e34825","article-title":"Dispersal history of the golden jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus Geoffroy, 1835) in Europe and possible causes of its recent population explosion","volume":"7","author":"Spassov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biodivers. Data J."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Ministry of Agriculture Veterinary and Food Safety Directorate (2021, May 22). 2019 Rabies Eradication Programme Croatia. Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/food\/sites\/food\/files\/animals\/docs\/reg-com_ahw_20200923_pres_rab_hrv.pdf."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Invasive Species Compendium (2021, May 19). Nyctereutes procyonoides (Raccoon Dog). Available online: https:\/\/www.cabi.org\/isc\/datasheet\/72656#tosummaryOfInvasiveness."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1093\/czoolo\/57.5.584","article-title":"Invasion of the raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides in Europe: History of colonization, features behind its success, and threats to native fauna","volume":"57","author":"Kauhala","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Zool."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"119","article-title":"Means used for terrestrial rabies elimination in France and policy for rabies surveillance in case of re-emergence","volume":"125","author":"Cliquet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1992.tb19662.x","article-title":"Mongoose rabies in the Caribbean","volume":"16","author":"Everard","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"3","article-title":"Small Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus (Hodgson, 1836) on the Adriatic islands of Yugoslavia","volume":"41","author":"Krystufek","year":"1990","journal-title":"Bonn. Zool. Beitr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-010-9831-7","article-title":"Small Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus (Herpestidae, Carnivora): An invasive species in Montenegro","volume":"13","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.7589\/2013-02-035","article-title":"Oral vaccination of captive small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) against rabies","volume":"49","author":"Vos","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortmann, S., Vos, A., Kretzschmar, A., Walther, N., Kaiser, C., Freuling, C., Lojki\u0107, I., and M\u00fcller, T. (2018). Safety studies with the oral rabies virus vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS in the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus). BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-018-1417-0"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvelage, S., Tammiranta, N., Nokireki, T., Gadd, T., Eggerbauer, E., Zaeck, L.M., Potratz, M., Wylezich, C., H\u00f6per, D., and M\u00fcller, T. (2021). Genetic and Antigenetic Characterization of the Novel Kotalahti Bat Lyssavirus (KBLV). Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13010069"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Jackson, A.C. (2013). Bat Rabies. Rabies: Scientific Basis of the Disease and Its Management, Elsevier Inc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1104.040920","article-title":"European bat lyssavirus in Scottish bats","volume":"11","author":"Brookes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0804.010263","article-title":"European bat lyssavirus infection in Spanish bat populations","volume":"8","author":"Amengual","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160imi\u0107, I., Lojki\u0107, I., Kre\u0161i\u0107, N., Cliquet, F., Picard-Meyer, E., Wasniewski, M., \u0106uku\u0161i\u0107, A., Zrn\u010di\u0107, V., and Bedekovi\u0107, T. (2018). Molecular and serological survey of lyssaviruses in Croatian bat populations. BMC Vet. Res., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-018-1592-z"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1863-2378.2008.01203.x","article-title":"Detection of high levels of European bat lyssavirus type-1 viral RNA in the thyroid gland of experimentally infected Eptesicus fuscus bats","volume":"56","author":"Fooks","year":"2009","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Unusual Rabies Case in a Cat from Italy (2020, September 02). Rabies Bulletin Europe Queries. Available online: https:\/\/www.who-rabies-bulletin.org\/news\/unusual-rabies-case-cat-italy."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/6\/742\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:13:38Z","timestamp":1760163218000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/6\/742"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,12]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens10060742"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens10060742","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,12]]}}}