{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T18:36:46Z","timestamp":1790361406205,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]],"date-time":"2021-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630972800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"DGER\/DIM1Health","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Feline coronaviruses (FCoV) are common viral pathogens of cats. They usually induce asymptomatic infections but some FCoV strains, named Feline Infectious Peritonitis Viruses (FIPV) lead to a systematic fatal disease, the feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). While no treatments are approved as of yet, numerous studies have been explored with the hope to develop therapeutic compounds. In recent years, two novel molecules (GS-441524 and GC376) have raised hopes given the encouraging results, but some concerns about the use of these molecules persist, such as the fear of the emergence of viral escape mutants or the difficult tissue distribution of these antivirals in certain affected organs. This review will summarize current findings and leads in the development of antiviral therapy against FCoV both in vitro and in vivo, with the description of their mechanisms of action when known. It highlights the molecules, which could have a broader effect on different coronaviruses. In the context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the development of antivirals is an urgent need and FIP could be a valuable model to help this research area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10091150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]],"date-time":"2021-09-07T10:24:25Z","timestamp":1631010265000},"page":"1150","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Feline Coronavirus Antivirals: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9695-3812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manon","family":"Delaplace","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1UMR 1161 Virologie, INRAE-ENVA-ANSES, \u00c9cole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, 94704 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00e9l\u00e8ne","family":"Huet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1UMR 1161 Virologie, INRAE-ENVA-ANSES, \u00c9cole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, 94704 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ad\u00e8le","family":"Gambino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1UMR 1161 Virologie, INRAE-ENVA-ANSES, \u00c9cole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, 94704 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophie","family":"Le Poder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1UMR 1161 Virologie, INRAE-ENVA-ANSES, \u00c9cole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, 94704 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, G., Wang, X., Tong, X., Shi, Y., Fu, Z.F., and Peng, G. (2020). Structural Basis for Inhibiting Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Replication with the 3C-Like Protease Inhibitor GC376. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020240"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prince, T., Smith, S.L., Radford, A.D., Solomon, T., Hughes, G.L., and Patterson, E.I. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 Infections in Animals: Reservoirs for Reverse Zoonosis and Models for Study. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030494"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-015-0439-5","article-title":"MERS Coronavirus: Diagnostics, Epidemiology and Transmission","volume":"12","author":"Mackay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"413","article-title":"An Apparently New Respiratory Disease of Baby Chicks","volume":"78","author":"Schalk","year":"1931","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-121-30734","article-title":"A New Virus Isolated from the Human Respiratory Tract","volume":"121","author":"Hamre","year":"1966","journal-title":"Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2006055","article-title":"Coronavirus Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus","volume":"38","author":"Cavanagh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haake, C., Cook, S., Pusterla, N., and Murphy, B. (2020). Coronavirus Infections in Companion Animals: Virology, Epidemiology, Clinical and Pathologic Features. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12091023"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252318000117","article-title":"Bovine-like Coronaviruses in Domestic and Wild Ruminants","volume":"19","author":"Amer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2000.217.526","article-title":"Coronavirus-Associated Epizootic Catarrhal Enteritis in Ferrets","volume":"217","author":"Williams","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2014.04.016","article-title":"An Update on Feline Infectious Peritonitis: Diagnostics and Therapeutics","volume":"201","author":"Pedersen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15E-1","DOI":"10.1002\/9780471729259.mc15e01s21","article-title":"Coronaviruses: Propagation, Quantification, Storage, and Construction of Recombinant Mouse Hepatitis Virus","volume":"21","author":"Leibowitz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14122","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.22.14122-14130.2005","article-title":"Acquisition of Macrophage Tropism during the Pathogenesis of Feline Infectious Peritonitis Is Determined by Mutations in the Feline Coronavirus Spike Protein","volume":"79","author":"Rottier","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.12.10.1209-1215.2005","article-title":"Feline Coronavirus Serotypes 1 and 2: Seroprevalence and Association with Disease in Switzerland","volume":"12","author":"Kummrow","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2013.10.015","article-title":"Recombinant Feline Coronaviruses as Vaccine Candidates Confer Protection in SPF but Not in Conventional Cats","volume":"169","author":"Farsang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(97)00006-6","article-title":"Placebo-Controlled Evaluation of a Modified Life Virus Vaccine against Feline Infectious Peritonitis: Safety and Efficacy under Field Conditions","volume":"15","author":"Fehr","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, I.-J., Tsai, W.-T., Hsieh, L.-E., and Chueh, L.-L. (2013). Peptides Corresponding to the Predicted Heptad Repeat 2 Domain of the Feline Coronavirus Spike Protein Are Potent Inhibitors of Viral Infection. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0082081"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13043","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-13316-0","article-title":"Nanoparticulate Vacuolar ATPase Blocker Exhibits Potent Host-Targeted Antiviral Activity against Feline Coronavirus","volume":"7","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.04.003","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Carbohydrate-Binding Agents against Nidovirales in Cell Culture","volume":"76","author":"Schuurman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.04.016","article-title":"Effect of Chloroquine on Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus Infection in Vitro and in Vivo","volume":"99","author":"Takano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takano, T., Satoh, K., Doki, T., Tanabe, T., and Hohdatsu, T. (2020). Antiviral Effects of Hydroxychloroquine and Type I Interferon on In Vitro Fatal Feline Coronavirus Infection. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12050576"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bj.2020.05.003","article-title":"Repurposing Old Drugs as Antiviral Agents for Coronaviruses","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.10.030","article-title":"Identification and Characterisation of Small Molecule Inhibitors of Feline Coronavirus Replication","volume":"174","author":"McDonagh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X19825701","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of the Nucleoside Analog GS-441524 for Treatment of Cats with Naturally Occurring Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"21","author":"Pedersen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15780","article-title":"Antiviral Treatment Using the Adenosine Nucleoside Analogue GS-441524 in Cats with Clinically Diagnosed Neurological Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"34","author":"Dickinson","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.04.026","article-title":"The Nucleoside Analog GS-441524 Strongly Inhibits Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) Virus in Tissue Culture and Experimental Cat Infection Studies","volume":"219","author":"Murphy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, J., Kimble, B., Norris, J.M., and Govendir, M. (2020). Pharmacokinetic Profile of Oral Administration of Mefloquine to Clinically Normal Cats: A Preliminary In-Vivo Study of a Potential Treatment for Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP). Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10061000"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1135(89)90049-7","article-title":"Inhibitory Effects of Ribavirin Alone or Combined with Human Alpha Interferon on Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus Replication in Vitro","volume":"20","author":"Weiss","year":"1989","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"556","article-title":"Effectiveness of Three Antiviral Agents against FIP Virus in Vitro","volume":"126","author":"Barlough","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.135.8.177","article-title":"Antiviral Studies of Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus in Vitro","volume":"135","author":"Barlough","year":"1994","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.12.009","article-title":"Combination SiRNA Therapy against Feline Coronavirus Can Delay the Emergence of Antiviral Resistance in Vitro","volume":"176","author":"McDonagh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Liu, H., Galasiti Kankanamalage, A.C., Weerasekara, S., Hua, D.H., Groutas, W.C., Chang, K.-O., and Pedersen, N.C. (2016). Reversal of the Progression of Fatal Coronavirus Infection in Cats by a Broad-Spectrum Coronavirus Protease Inhibitor. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005531"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X17729626","article-title":"Efficacy of a 3C-like Protease Inhibitor in Treating Various Forms of Acquired Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"20","author":"Pedersen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2012.11.005","article-title":"Potent Inhibition of Feline Coronaviruses with Peptidyl Compounds Targeting Coronavirus 3C-like Protease","volume":"97","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bj.2020.05.001","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence Approach Fighting COVID-19 with Repurposing Drugs","volume":"43","author":"Ke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2010.06.010","article-title":"Synergistic Antiviral Effect of Galanthus Nivalis Agglutinin and Nelfinavir against Feline Coronavirus","volume":"88","author":"Hsieh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doki, T., Tarusawa, T., Hohdatsu, T., and Takano, T. (2020). In Vivo Antiviral Effects of U18666A Against Type I Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9010067"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-019-0625-3","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Itraconazole against Type I Feline Coronavirus Infection","volume":"50","author":"Takano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-020-04605-7","article-title":"Therapeutic Effect of an Anti-Human-TNF-Alpha Antibody and Itraconazole on Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"165","author":"Doki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11992","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01094-08","article-title":"Utilization of DC-SIGN for Entry of Feline Coronaviruses into Host Cells","volume":"82","author":"Regan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01387-16","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01387-16","article-title":"Clinical Isolates of Human Coronavirus 229E Bypass the Endosome for Cell Entry","volume":"91","author":"Shirato","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2147","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.2008\/002212-0","article-title":"Clathrin- and Caveolae-Independent Entry of Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus in Monocytes Depends on Dynamin","volume":"89","author":"Dewerchin","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2015.04.011","article-title":"Identification of the Peptide Derived from S1 Domain That Inhibits Type I and Type II Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus Infection","volume":"204","author":"Doki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.06.014","article-title":"Inhibitory and Combinatorial Effect of Diphyllin, a v-ATPase Blocker, on Influenza Viruses","volume":"99","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.10.011","article-title":"Inhibition of Human Coronavirus 229E Infection in Human Epithelial Lung Cells (L132) by Chloroquine: Involvement of P38 MAPK and ERK","volume":"77","author":"Kono","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12082","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01466-10","article-title":"Reduction of Immune Activation with Chloroquine Therapy during Chronic HIV Infection","volume":"84","author":"Murray","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(03)00806-5","article-title":"Effects of Chloroquine on Viral Infections: An Old Drug against Today\u2019s Diseases?","volume":"3","author":"Savarino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-2-69","article-title":"Chloroquine Is a Potent Inhibitor of SARS Coronavirus Infection and Spread","volume":"2","author":"Vincent","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0156-0","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine, a Less Toxic Derivative of Chloroquine, Is Effective in Inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Vitro","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(83)91265-2","article-title":"Animal Toxicity and Pharmacokinetics of Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate","volume":"75","author":"McChesney","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-1899-0_79","article-title":"Coronaviruses Use Discontinuous Extension for Synthesis of Subgenome-Length Negative Strands","volume":"380","author":"Sawicki","year":"1995","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5208","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84754-0","article-title":"A Retrospective Study of Clinical and Laboratory Features and Treatment on Cats Highly Suspected of Feline Infectious Peritonitis in Wuhan, China","volume":"11","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2020.02.012","article-title":"Oral Mutian\u00aeX Stopped Faecal Feline Coronavirus Shedding by Naturally Infected Cats","volume":"130","author":"Addie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Addie, D.D., Covell-Ritchie, J., Jarrett, O., and Fosbery, M. (2020). Rapid Resolution of Non-Effusive Feline Infectious Peritonitis Uveitis with an Oral Adenosine Nucleoside Analogue and Feline Interferon Omega. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12111216"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, S., Novicoff, W., Nadeau, J., and Evans, S. (2021). Unlicensed GS-441524-Like Antiviral Therapy Can Be Effective for at-Home Treatment of Feline Infectious Peritonitis. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11082257"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-5288(93)90076-R","article-title":"Evaluation of Free or Liposome-Encapsulated Ribavirin for Antiviral Therapy of Experimentally Induced Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"55","author":"Weiss","year":"1993","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"527","article-title":"Systemic Antivirals for Therapy of Herpesvirus Diseases","volume":"52","author":"Merigan","year":"1982","journal-title":"Dev. Biol. Stand."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1976","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.1976","article-title":"A Review on Current Status of Antiviral siRNA","volume":"28","author":"Qureshi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.01.023","article-title":"In Vitro Inhibition of Feline Coronavirus Replication by Small Interfering RNAs","volume":"150","author":"McDonagh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/10.20.2243","article-title":"Triplex Forming Oligonucleotides: Sequence-Specific Tools for Gene Targeting","volume":"10","author":"Knauert","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654712","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/654712","article-title":"In Vitro Antiviral Activity of Circular Triple Helix Forming Oligonucleotide RNA towards Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus Replication","volume":"2014","author":"Choong","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4942","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03688-14","article-title":"Broad-Spectrum Inhibitors against 3C-Like Proteases of Feline Coronaviruses and Feline Caliciviruses","volume":"89","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11754","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01348-12","article-title":"Broad-Spectrum Antivirals against 3C or 3C-Like Proteases of Picornaviruses, Noroviruses, and Coronaviruses","volume":"86","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2019.108398","article-title":"Characterization of Amino Acid Substitutions in Feline Coronavirus 3C-like Protease from a Cat with Feline Infectious Peritonitis Treated with a Protease Inhibitor","volume":"237","author":"Perera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.04.083","article-title":"HIV Protease Inhibitor Nelfinavir Inhibits Replication of SARS-Associated Coronavirus","volume":"318","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.07.022","article-title":"The Cholesterol Transport Inhibitor U18666A Inhibits Type I Feline Coronavirus Infection","volume":"145","author":"Takano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4454","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26917","article-title":"In Vitro Activity of Itraconazole against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"93","author":"Bojkova","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1997.58.08.872","article-title":"Itraconazole Disposition after Single Oral and Intravenous and Multiple Oral Dosing in Healthy Cats","volume":"58","author":"Boothe","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.20-0049","article-title":"Clinical Efficacy of Combination Therapy of Itraconazole and Prednisolone for Treating Effusive Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"82","author":"Kameshima","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-43-41","article-title":"Suppression of Feline Coronavirus Replication In Vitro by Cyclosporin A","volume":"43","author":"Tanaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000134","DOI":"10.1136\/vetreccr-2014-000134","article-title":"Treatment of a Case of Feline Infectious Peritonitis with Cyclosporin A","volume":"3","author":"Tanaka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Rec. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1135(94)90095-7","article-title":"Inhibitory Effects of Recombinant Feline Interferon on the Replication of Feline Enteropathogenic Viruses in Vitro","volume":"39","author":"Mochizuki","year":"1994","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1193","article-title":"Effect of Feline Interferon-Omega on the Survival Time and Quality of Life of Cats with Feline Infectious Peritonitis","volume":"21","author":"Ritz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1329","article-title":"Inhibition of Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus Replication by Recombinant Human Leukocyte (Alpha) Interferon and Feline Fibroblastic (Beta) Interferon","volume":"49","author":"Weiss","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1990.51.05.726","article-title":"Effect of Interferon or Propionibacterium Acnes on the Course of Experimentally Induced Feline Infectious Peritonitis in Specific-Pathogen-Free and Random-Source Cats","volume":"51","author":"Weiss","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2009.05.008","article-title":"Feline Infectious Peritonitis. ABCD Guidelines on Prevention and Management","volume":"11","author":"Addie","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2017.00007","article-title":"Polyprenyl Immunostimulant Treatment of Cats with Presumptive Non-Effusive Feline Infectious Peritonitis In a Field Study","volume":"4","author":"Legendre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v22.i4.1421","article-title":"New Approaches in the Treatment of Hepatitis C","volume":"22","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-018-0895-5","article-title":"Sofosbuvir\/Velpatasvir\/Voxilaprevir: A Review in Chronic Hepatitis C","volume":"78","author":"Heo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1038\/387188a0","article-title":"Decay Characteristics of HIV-1-Infected Compartments during Combination Therapy","volume":"387","author":"Perelson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cook, S.E., Vogel, H., Castillo, D., Olsen, M., Pedersen, N., and Murphy, B.G. (2020). A Rational Approach to Identifying Effective Combined Anticoronaviral Therapies against Feline Coronavirus. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.09.195016"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2021.113584","article-title":"Improved SARS-CoV-2 Mpro Inhibitors Based on Feline Antiviral Drug GC376: Structural Enhancements, Increased Solubility, and Micellar Studies","volume":"222","author":"Vuong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmedchemlett.0c00316","article-title":"Advantages of the Parent Nucleoside GS-441524 over Remdesivir for COVID-19 Treatment","volume":"11","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barre, A., Van Damme, E.J.M., Simplicien, M., Le Poder, S., Klonjkowski, B., Benoist, H., Peyrade, D., and Roug\u00e9, P. (2021). Man-Specific Lectins from Plants, Fungi, Algae and Cyanobacteria, as Potential Blockers for SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Coronaviruses: Biomedical Perspectives. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10071619"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stefanik, M., Strakova, P., Haviernik, J., Miller, A.D., Ruzek, D., and Eyer, L. (2021). Antiviral Activity of Vacuolar ATPase Blocker Diphyllin against SARS-CoV-2. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9030471"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.03.003","article-title":"Plant Lectins Are Potent Inhibitors of Coronaviruses by Interfering with Two Targets in the Viral Replication Cycle","volume":"75","author":"Keyaerts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkm301","article-title":"The Carbohydrate-Binding Plant Lectins and the Non-Peptidic Antibiotic Pradimicin A Target the Glycans of the Coronavirus Envelope Glycoproteins","volume":"60","author":"Schuurman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01310747","article-title":"Initial Events in Bovine Coronavirus Infection: Analysis through Immunogold Probes and Lysosomotropic Inhibitors","volume":"114","author":"Payne","year":"1990","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.08.085","article-title":"In Vitro Inhibition of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus by Chloroquine","volume":"323","author":"Keyaerts","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3416","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01509-08","article-title":"Antiviral Activity of Chloroquine against Human Coronavirus OC43 Infection in Newborn Mice","volume":"53","author":"Keyaerts","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4875","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.03011-14","article-title":"Screening of an FDA-Approved Compound Library Identifies Four Small-Molecule Inhibitors of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Replication in Cell Culture","volume":"58","author":"Jochmans","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2017.00056","article-title":"Induction of Atypical Autophagy by Porcine Hemagglutinating Encephalomyelitis Virus Contributes to Viral Replication","volume":"7","author":"Ding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0282-0","article-title":"Remdesivir and Chloroquine Effectively Inhibit the Recently Emerged Novel Coronavirus (2019-NCoV) in Vitro","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa237","article-title":"In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Projection of Optimized Dosing Design of Hydroxychloroquine for the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)","volume":"71","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651403","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.651403","article-title":"Mefloquine, a Potent Anti-Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Drug as an Entry Inhibitor in Vitro","volume":"12","author":"Shionoya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.11.010","article-title":"A Screen of the NIH Clinical Collection Small Molecule Library Identifies Potential Anti-Coronavirus Drugs","volume":"114","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2045","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13615-X","article-title":"Glycyrrhizin, an Active Component of Liquorice Roots, and Replication of SARS-Associated Coronavirus","volume":"361","author":"Cinatl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00221-18","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00221-18","article-title":"Coronavirus Susceptibility to the Antiviral Remdesivir (GS-5734) Is Mediated by the Viral Polymerase and the Proofreading Exoribonuclease","volume":"9","author":"Agostini","year":"2018","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Cao, L., Li, G., Cong, F., Li, Y., Sun, J., Luo, Y., Chen, G., Li, G., and Wang, P. (2021). Remdesivir Metabolite GS-441524 Effectively Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Mouse Models. J. Med. Chem.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.10.26.353300"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2125","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.35.10.2125","article-title":"Hygromycin B Therapy of a Murine Coronaviral Hepatitis","volume":"35","author":"Macintyre","year":"1991","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(99)00042-5","article-title":"Characterization of Bovine Coronavirus Isolates\/from Eight Different States in the USA","volume":"67","author":"Kapil","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Ma, C., Szeto, T., Hurst, B., Tarbet, B., and Wang, J. (2020). Boceprevir, Calpain Inhibitors II and XII, and GC-376 Have Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Activity against Coronaviruses in Cell Culture. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.10.30.362335"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3683","DOI":"10.3390\/v6093683","article-title":"IFITM Proteins Inhibit Entry Driven by the MERS-Coronavirus Spike Protein: Evidence for Cholesterol-Independent Mechanisms","volume":"6","author":"Wrensch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Viruses"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/9\/1150\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:57:50Z","timestamp":1760165870000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/9\/1150"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens10091150"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens10091150","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]}}}