{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T04:11:07Z","timestamp":1791951067951,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]],"date-time":"2021-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635465600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Babesiosis is one of the most important tick-borne diseases in veterinary health, impacting mainly cattle, equidae, and canidae, and limiting the development of livestock industries worldwide. In humans, babesiosis is considered to be an emerging disease mostly due to Babesia divergens in Europe and Babesia microti in America. Despite this importance, our knowledge of Babesia sp. transmission by ticks is incomplete. The complexity of vectorial systems involving the vector, vertebrate host, and pathogen, as well as the complex feeding biology of ticks, may be part of the reason for the existing gaps in our knowledge. Indeed, this complexity renders the implementation of experimental systems that are as close as possible to natural conditions and allowing the study of tick-host-parasite interactions, quite difficult. However, it is unlikely that the development of more effective and sustainable control measures against babesiosis will emerge unless significant progress can be made in understanding this tripartite relationship. The various methods used to date to achieve tick transmission of Babesia spp. of medical and veterinary importance under experimental conditions are reviewed and discussed here.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10111403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T22:24:22Z","timestamp":1635805462000},"page":"1403","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Experimental Infection of Ticks: An Essential Tool for the Analysis of Babesia Species Biology and Transmission"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6365-6117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah I.","family":"Bonnet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Health Department, INRAE, 37380 Nouzilly, France"},{"name":"Functional Genetics of Infectious Diseases Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 2000, Universit\u00e9 de Paris, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cl\u00e9mence","family":"Nadal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Unit, Laboratory for Animal Health, University Paris Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"},{"name":"Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire d\u2019Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Sant\u00e9 Animale, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.13.3.451","article-title":"Babesiosis","volume":"13","author":"Homer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1097\/MOH.0000000000000606","article-title":"Human babesiosis: Recent advances and future challenges","volume":"27","author":"Lobo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres\/2009020","article-title":"Babesia and its hosts: Adaptation to long-lasting interactions as a way to achieve efficient transmission","volume":"40","author":"Chauvin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2018.11.007","article-title":"Human babesiosis","volume":"49","author":"Krause","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S247","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182004005190","article-title":"Babesiosis of cattle","volume":"129","author":"Bock","year":"2004","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(97)00143-X","article-title":"Some epizootiological and clinical aspects of ovine babesiosis caused by Babesia ovis\u2014A review","volume":"74","author":"Yeruham","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tirosh-Levy, S., Gottlieb, Y., Fry, L.M., Knowles, D.P., and Steinman, A. (2020). Twenty Years of Equine Piroplasmosis Research: Global Distribution, Molecular Diagnosis, and Phylogeny. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9110926"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nadal, C., Bonnet, S.I., and Marsot, M. (2021). Eco-epidemiology of equine piroplasmosis and its associated tick vectors in Europe: A systematic literature review and a meta-analysis of prevalence. Transbound. Emerg. Dis.","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14261"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2018.03.010","article-title":"Discovery of a novel species, Theileria haneyi n. sp., infective to equids, highlights exceptional genomic diversity within the genus Theileria: Implications for apicomplexan parasite surveillance","volume":"48","author":"Knowles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.2478\/acve-2018-0011","article-title":"Canine Babesiosis: Where Do We Stand?","volume":"68","author":"Mrljak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Vet."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.05.032","article-title":"Emerging perspectives in the research of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis","volume":"180","author":"Suarez","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1987","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.17581.1","article-title":"Research on Babesia: A bibliometric assessment of a neglected tick-borne parasite","volume":"7","year":"2018","journal-title":"F1000Res"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1051\/acarologia\/20122068","article-title":"Laboratory artificial infection of hard ticks: A tool for the analysis of tick-borne pathogen transmission","volume":"52","author":"Bonnet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acarologia"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"114","article-title":"Tick-Pathogen Interactions and Vector Competence: Identification of Molecular Drivers for Tick-Borne Diseases","volume":"7","author":"Antunes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2012.08.004","article-title":"In vitro culture systems for the study of apicomplexan parasites in farm animals","volume":"43","author":"Muller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4426","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.02126-14","article-title":"Tick passage results in enhanced attenuation of Babesia bovis","volume":"82","author":"Sondgeroth","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1978.tb04175.x","article-title":"Differences in the life cycles between a vaccine strain and an unmodified strain of Babesia bovis (Babes, 1889) in the tick Boophilus microplus (Canestrini)","volume":"25","author":"Stewart","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Protozool."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-23.1.99","article-title":"Experimental infections of Babesia bigemina in American bison","volume":"23","author":"Zaugg","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2002029","article-title":"Sheep as a new experimental host for Babesia divergens","volume":"33","author":"Chauvin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Garcia, G., Santamaria-Espinosa, R.M., Lira-Amaya, J.J., and Figueroa, J.V. (2021). Challenges in Tick-Borne Pathogen Detection: The Case for Babesia spp. Identification in the Tick Vector. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10020092"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-42-62","article-title":"The invasion process of bovine erythrocyte by Babesia divergens: Knowledge from an in vitro assay","volume":"42","author":"Sun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-662R.1","article-title":"In vitro host erythrocyte specificity and differential morphology of Babesia divergens and a zoonotic Babesia sp. from eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus)","volume":"92","author":"Spencer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3921","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.8.3921-3928.1999","article-title":"Cytoadherence of Babesia bovis-infected erythrocytes to bovine brain capillary endothelial cells provides an in vitro model for sequestration","volume":"67","author":"Long","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2016.11.020","article-title":"Initial development of Babesia ovata in the tick midgut","volume":"233","author":"Maeda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01968225","article-title":"The invasion and growth of Babesia bovis in tick tissue culture","volume":"35","author":"Bhat","year":"1979","journal-title":"Experientia"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2009.03.011","article-title":"Babesia bigemina: In vitro multiplication of sporokinetes in Ixodes scapularis (IDE8) cells","volume":"122","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2015.07.008","article-title":"In vitro cultivation and cryopreservation of Babesia bigemina sporokinetes in hemocytes of Rhipicephalus microplus","volume":"212","author":"Rangel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn, J.M., Krause, P.J., Davis, S., Vannier, E.G., Fitzpatrick, M.C., Rollend, L., Belperron, A.A., States, S.L., Stacey, A., and Bockenstedt, L.K. (2014). Borrelia burgdorferi promotes the establishment of Babesia microti in the northeastern United States. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0115494"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000060285","article-title":"The effect of Babesia microti on feeding and survival in its tick vector, Ixodes trianguliceps","volume":"102","author":"Randolph","year":"1991","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1981.30.555","article-title":"Tick transmission of Babesia microti to rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)","volume":"30","author":"Ruebush","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.4.1259-1263.2002","article-title":"Transmission studies of Babesia microti in Ixodes ricinus ticks and gerbils","volume":"40","author":"Gray","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"228","article-title":"A study on the transmission (transstadial, transovarial) of Babesia microti, strain \"Hannover i\", in its tick vector, Ixodes ricinus (author\u2019s transl)","volume":"32","author":"Walter","year":"1981","journal-title":"Tropenmed. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1517-2","article-title":"Experimental transmission of Babesia microti by Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01915","article-title":"Evaluation on Infectivity of Babesia microti to Domestic Animals and Ticks Outside the Ixodes Genus","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182006001545","article-title":"Transstadial and transovarial persistence of Babesia divergens DNA in Ixodes ricinus ticks fed on infected blood in a new skin-feeding technique","volume":"134","author":"Bonnet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(63)90044-4","article-title":"The Experimental Transmission of Babesia divergens by Ixodes ricinus","volume":"14","author":"Joyner","year":"1963","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(75)90085-5","article-title":"Experiments on the transmission of Babesia divergens to cattle by the tick Ixodes ricinus","volume":"5","author":"Donnelly","year":"1975","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.2307\/3280841","article-title":"The transmission of a human strain of Babesia divergens by Ixodes ricinus ticks","volume":"66","author":"Lewis","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00930815","article-title":"Sexual cycle of Babesia divergens confirmed by DNA measurements","volume":"76","author":"Mackenstedt","year":"1990","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres\/2009004","article-title":"Experimental in vitro transmission of Babesia sp. (EU1) by Ixodes ricinus","volume":"40","author":"Bonnet","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(18)33035-2","article-title":"Bovine babesiosis: Severity and reproducibility of Babesia bovis infections induced by Boophilus microplus under laboratory conditions","volume":"24","author":"Smith","year":"1978","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, T., and Kilborne, F.L. (1893). Investigations into the nature, causation and prevention of Southern cattle fever. Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the Year 1892, Government Printing Office.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.124068"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1961.tb03790.x","article-title":"Transmission experiments using Babesia bigemina, Theileria mutans, Borrelia sp. and the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus","volume":"37","author":"Callow","year":"1961","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000068840","article-title":"Babesia Bigemina in Ticks Grown on Non-Bovine Hosts and Its Transmission to These Hosts","volume":"55","author":"Callow","year":"1965","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000047910","article-title":"Babesia bigemina in Kenya: Experimental transmission by Boophilus decoloratus and the production of tick-derived stabilates","volume":"74","author":"Morzaria","year":"1977","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0450.1981.tb01918.x","article-title":"Experimental transmission of Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale to calves with the larvae of Boophilus decoloratus","volume":"28","author":"Akinboade","year":"1981","journal-title":"Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. B"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"271","article-title":"Experimental transmission of Babesia bigemina in sheep using infective larval tick of Boophilus decoloratus","volume":"34","author":"Akinboade","year":"1981","journal-title":"Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays. Trop."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(18)33212-0","article-title":"Experimental transmission of Babesia major by Haemaphysalis punctata","volume":"23","author":"Morzaria","year":"1977","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(96)01022-9","article-title":"Experiments on the transmission of Babesia major and Babesia bigemina by Haemaphysalis punctata","volume":"67","author":"Yin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1515\/ap-2018-0051","article-title":"Transovarial persistence of Babesia ovata DNA in a hard tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, in a semi-artificial mouse skin membrane feeding system","volume":"63","author":"Hatta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"494","article-title":"The Hereditary Transmission of Babesia Caballi in the Tropical Horse Tick, Dermacentor Nitens Neumann","volume":"25","author":"Roby","year":"1964","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/45.6.1152","article-title":"Transmission of Babesia caballi by Dermacentor nitens (Acari: Ixodidae) is restricted to one generation in the absence of alimentary reinfection on a susceptible equine host","volume":"45","author":"Schwint","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"655","article-title":"The transstadial transmission of Babesia caballi by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi","volume":"54","author":"Potgieter","year":"1987","journal-title":"Onderstepoort. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2015.07.017","article-title":"Transmission of Babesia ovis by different Rhipicephalus bursa developmental stages and infected blood injection","volume":"7","author":"Erster","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ticks Tick Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.03.047","article-title":"The prevention of transmission of Babesia canis canis by Dermacentor reticulatus ticks to dogs using a novel combination of fipronil, amitraz and (S)-methoprene","volume":"179","author":"Jongejan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-283","article-title":"The ability of an oral formulation of afoxolaner to block the transmission of Babesia canis by Dermacentor reticulatus ticks to dogs","volume":"7","author":"Beugnet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1481-x","article-title":"Prevention of transmission of Babesia canis by Dermacentor reticulatus ticks to dogs after topical administration of fluralaner spot-on solution","volume":"9","author":"Taenzler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3393-z","article-title":"A study on the long-term efficacy of Seresto(R) collars in preventing Babesia canis (Piana & Galli-Valerio, 1895) transmission to dogs by infected Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius, 1794) ticks","volume":"12","author":"Fourie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2637-7","article-title":"Early Babesia canis transmission in dogs within 24 h and 8 h of infestation with infected pre-activated male Dermacentor reticulatus ticks","volume":"11","author":"Varloud","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2019051","article-title":"Prevention of the transmission of Babesia rossi by Haemaphysalis elliptica in dogs treated with Nexgard((R))","volume":"26","author":"Beugnet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(08)60285-7","article-title":"The piroplasms: Life cycle and sexual stages","volume":"23","author":"Mehlhorn","year":"1984","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Naveed Ahmed, K. (2007). Babesia microti.. Emerging Protozoan Pathogens, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.01.007","article-title":"Babesia Life Cycle\u2014When Phylogeny Meets Biology","volume":"35","author":"Jalovecka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"35","article-title":"Transovarial Transmission of Babesia ovis by Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Hyalomma marginatum","volume":"5","author":"Razmi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Iran J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2015.03.008","article-title":"Infection of Siberian chipmunks (Tamias sibiricus barberi) with Borrelia sp. reveals a low reservoir competence under experimental conditions","volume":"6","author":"Bonnet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ticks Tick Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almazan, C., Simo, L., Fourniol, L., Rakotobe, S., Borneres, J., Cote, M., Peltier, S., Maye, J., Versille, N., and Richardson, J. (2020). Multiple Antigenic Peptide-Based Vaccines Targeting Ixodes ricinus Neuropeptides Induce a Specific Antibody Response but Do Not Impact Tick Infestation. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9110900"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00040","article-title":"Experimental Ixodes ricinus-Sheep Cycle of Anaplasma phagocytophilum NV2Os Propagated in Tick Cell Cultures","volume":"7","author":"Almazan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almazan, C., Bonnet, S., Cote, M., Slovak, M., Park, Y., and Simo, L. (2018). A Versatile Model of Hard Tick Infestation on Laboratory Rabbits. J. Vis. Exp.","DOI":"10.3791\/57994"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(02)00203-0","article-title":"An epidemiological study on ovine babesiosis in the Mashhad suburb area, province of Khorasan, Iran","volume":"108","author":"Razmi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-011118-111932","article-title":"Vectors of Babesiosis","volume":"64","author":"Gray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(88)90105-1","article-title":"Intensity and duration of Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti infectivity in rodent hosts","volume":"18","author":"Piesman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(90)90085-Q","article-title":"Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti: Efficiency of transmission from reservoirs to vector ticks (Ixodes dammini)","volume":"70","author":"Mather","year":"1990","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2015.09.008","article-title":"Coinfection by Ixodes Tick-Borne Pathogens: Ecological, Epidemiological, and Clinical Consequences","volume":"32","author":"Vannier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Boulanger, N. (2018). Tick saliva and its role in pathogen transmission. Skin and Arthropod Vectors, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X.Y., and Bonnet, S.I. (2014). Hard tick factors implicated in pathogen transmission. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002566"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsuji, N., Miyoshi, T., Battsetseg, B., Matsuo, T., Xuan, X., and Fujisaki, K. (2008). A cysteine protease is critical for Babesia spp. transmission in Haemaphysalis ticks. PLoS Pathog., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000062"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1139\/O08-071","article-title":"Tick vitellogenin receptor reveals critical role in oocyte development and transovarial transmission of Babesia parasite","volume":"86","author":"Boldbaatar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-111","article-title":"The Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Bm86 gene plays a critical role in the fitness of ticks fed on cattle during acute Babesia bovis infection","volume":"3","author":"Bastos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2011.12.003","article-title":"Functional genomics studies of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus ticks in response to infection with the cattle protozoan parasite, Babesia bigemina","volume":"42","author":"Antunes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-276","article-title":"The ovarian transcriptome of the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, feeding upon a bovine host infected with Babesia bovis","volume":"6","author":"Heekin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.09.023","article-title":"Targeting the tick protective antigen subolesin reduces vector infestations and pathogen infection by Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina","volume":"29","author":"Merino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1999.tb13157.x","article-title":"Transmission of Babesia spp. by the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) to cattle treated with injectable or pour-on formulations of ivermectin and moxidectin","volume":"77","author":"Waldron","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4017(93)90205-2","article-title":"Evaluation of the infectivity of a vaccinal and a pathogenic Babesia bovis strain from Argentina to Boophilus microplus","volume":"51","author":"Mangold","year":"1993","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1207-5","article-title":"A novel combination of fipronil and permethrin (Frontline Tri-Act(R)\/Frontect(R)) reduces risk of transmission of Babesia canis by Dermacentor reticulatus and of Ehrlichia canis by Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks to dogs","volume":"8","author":"Jongejan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v74i4.524","article-title":"The efficacy of collars impregnated with flumethrin and propoxur against experimental infestations of adult Rhipicephalus sanguineus on dogs","volume":"74","author":"Fourie","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2005.226.221","article-title":"Efficacy of a collar impregnated with amitraz and pyriproxyfen for prevention of experimental tick infestations by Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Ixodes ricinus, and Ixodes scapularis in dogs","volume":"226","author":"Reme","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"8","article-title":"Notes on some phenomenal feeding of ticks","volume":"34","author":"Gregson","year":"1938","journal-title":"Proc. Ent. Soc. Br. Columb."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.60.509","article-title":"Establishment of Boophilus microplus infected with Babesia bigemina by using in vitro tube feeding technique","volume":"60","author":"Inokuma","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-42","article-title":"Tick capillary feeding for the study of proteins involved in tick-pathogen interactions as potential antigens for the control of tick infestation and pathogen infection","volume":"7","author":"Antunes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2014.09.003","article-title":"Artificial feeding of Rhipicephalus microplus female ticks with anti calreticulin serum do not influence tick and Babesia bigemina acquisition","volume":"6","author":"Antunes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ticks Tick Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1956.tb05639.x","article-title":"A note on the cultivation of Boophilus microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Ixodidae: Acarina) on the embryonated hen egg","volume":"32","author":"Pierce","year":"1956","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2010.06.011","article-title":"Identification of three CCp genes in Babesia divergens: Novel markers for sexual stages parasites","volume":"174","author":"Becker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2012.10.007","article-title":"Validation of BdCCp2 as a marker for Babesia divergens sexual stages in ticks","volume":"133","author":"Becker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37039","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37039","article-title":"Establishment of a novel tick-Babesia experimental infection model","volume":"6","author":"Maeda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/36.4.414","article-title":"Comparison of methods for introducing and producing artificial infection of ixodid ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) with Ehrlichia chaffeensis","volume":"36","author":"Rechav","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2018.00116","article-title":"Rhipicephalus bursa Sialotranscriptomic Response to Blood Feeding and Babesia ovis Infection: Identification of Candidate Protective Antigens","volume":"8","author":"Antunes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/11\/1403\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:22:39Z","timestamp":1760167359000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/11\/1403"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens10111403"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens10111403","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]}}}