{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T05:46:16Z","timestamp":1790833576429,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,30]],"date-time":"2021-10-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635552000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Federal Almazov North-West Medical Research Centre","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Post COVID-19 Syndrome (PCS) is a complex of various symptoms developing a month or more after the acute phase of the disease. The cases of PCS development among patients with asymptomatic\/mild forms are frequently reported; however, the pathogenesis of PCS in this group of patients is still not completely clear. The publications about COVID-19 which were published in online databases from December 2019 to September 2021 are analyzed in this review. According to the analysis, PCS develops on average in 30\u201360% of patients, mainly among women. Fatigue, shortness of breath, cough, and anosmia were reported as the most common symptoms. The possible association between the described PCS symptoms and brain damage was revealed. We assume the possibility of an alternative course of COVID-19, which develops in genetically predisposed individuals with a stronger immune response, in which it predominantly affects the cells of the nervous system, possibly with the presence of an autoimmune component, which might have similarity with chronic fatigue syndrome or autoimmune disautonomia. Thus, the gender (female) and the presence of anosmia during an asymptomatic or mild course of the disease can be predictive factors for the development of PCS, which can be caused by autoimmune damage to neurons, glia, and cerebral vessels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10111408","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T22:24:22Z","timestamp":1635805462000},"page":"1408","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":90,"title":["Post COVID-19 Syndrome in Patients with Asymptomatic\/Mild Form"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6008-1354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ann\u0430","family":"Malkova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Department, St-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Kudryavtsev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Institution of Experimental Medicine, 197376 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Starshinova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Almazov National Medical Research Centre, 197341 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1878-4467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitry","family":"Kudlay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Department, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"NRC Institute of Immunology FMBA of Russia, 115478 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6273-4304","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yulia","family":"Zinchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Petersburg Research Institute of Phthisiopulmonology, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anzhela","family":"Glushkova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"V.M. Bekhterev National Research Medical Center for Psychiatry and Neurology, 192019 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piotr","family":"Yablonskiy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Department, St-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"},{"name":"St. Petersburg Research Institute of Phthisiopulmonology, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yehuda","family":"Shoenfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Department, St-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia"},{"name":"Ariel University, Kiryat HaMada 3, Ariel 40700, Israel"},{"name":"Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer 5265601, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03120-0","article-title":"Role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Ni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.04.027","article-title":"Specific ACE2 expression in small intestinal enterocytes may cause gastrointestinal symptoms and injury after 2019-nCoV infection","volume":"96","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6175964","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/6175964","article-title":"Pulmonary Fibrosis in COVID-19 Survivors: Predictive Factors and Risk Reduction Strategies","volume":"2020","author":"Ojo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.33029\/0206-4952-2021-42-3-198-210","article-title":"Molecular immunological aspects of diagnostics, prevention and treatment of coronavirus infection","volume":"42","author":"Gudima","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunologiya"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amenta, E.M., Spallone, A., Rodriguez-Barradas, M.C., El Sahly, H.M., Atmar, R.L., and Kulkarni, P.A. (2020). Postacute COVID-19: An overview and approach to classification. Open Forum Infectious Diseases, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa509"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"642","article-title":"Rehabilitation and COVID-19: The Cochrane Rehabilitation 2020 rapid living systematic review","volume":"56","author":"Ceravolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2021, October 26). Post-COVID Conditions | CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/long-term-effects\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"384","article-title":"Post-COVID-19 syndrome: Epidemiology, diagnostic criteria and pathogenic mechanisms involved","volume":"72","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-020-06001-y","article-title":"Persistent symptoms after COVID-19: Qualitative study of 114 \u201clong Covid\u201d patients and draft quality principles for services","volume":"20","author":"Ladds","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2021, October 26). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection Survey, UK Statistical Bulletins\u2014Office for National Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.ons.gov.uk\/peoplepopulationandcommunity\/healthandsocialcare\/conditionsanddiseases\/bulletins\/coronaviruscovid19infectionsurveypilot\/previousReleases."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2021, October 26). Living with COVID-19\u2014Second Review. Available online: https:\/\/evidence.nihr.ac.uk\/themedreview\/living-with-covid19-second-review\/."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanepe.2021.100122","article-title":"Post-COVID syndrome in non-hospitalised patients with COVID-19: A longitudinal prospective cohort study","volume":"6","author":"Augustin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health Eur."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6930e1","article-title":"Symptom Duration and Risk Factors for Delayed Return to Usual Health Among Outpatients with COVID-19 in a Multistate Health Care Systems Network\u2014United States, March\u2013June 2020","volume":"69","author":"Tenforde","year":"2020","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.09.052","article-title":"Follow-up of adults with noncritical COVID-19 two months after symptom onset","volume":"27","author":"Laurent","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Pinto, M.D., Borelli, J.L., Mehrabadi, M.A., Abrihim, H., Dutt, N., Lambert, N., Nurmi, E.L., Chakraborty, R., and Rahmani, A.M. (2021). COVID Symptoms, Symptom Clusters, and Predictors for Becoming a Long-Hauler: Looking for Clarity in the Haze of the Pandemic. medRxiv, medRxiv:21252086.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.03.03.21252086"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tabacof, L., Tosto-Mancuso, J., Wood, J., Cortes, M., Kontorovich, A., McCarthy, D., Rizk, D., Nasr, L., Breyman, E., and Mohammadi, N. (2020). Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome negatively impacts health and wellbeing despite less severe acute infection. medRxiv, medRxiv:20226126.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.11.04.20226126"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e210830","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.0830","article-title":"Sequelae in Adults at 6 Months after COVID-19 Infection","volume":"4","author":"Logue","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bell, M.L., Catalfamo, C.J., Farland, L.V., Ernst, K.C., Jacobs, E.T., Klimentidis, Y.C., Jehn, M., and Pogreba-Brown, K. (2021). Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 in a non-hospitalized cohort: Results from the Arizona CoVHORT. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.03.29.21254588"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.5612","article-title":"Symptoms and Functional Impairment Assessed 8 Months after Mild COVID-19 among Health Care Workers","volume":"325","author":"Havervall","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA\u2014J. Am. Med Assoc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13153","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92045-x","article-title":"Acute and persistent symptoms in non-hospitalized PCR-confirmed COVID-19 patients","volume":"11","author":"Bliddal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2021.06.009","article-title":"Prevalence of post-COVID-19 symptoms in hospitalized and non-hospitalized COVID-19 survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"92","author":"Florencio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1002\/lio2.507","article-title":"Olfactory and taste dysfunction among mild-to-moderate symptomatic COVID-19 positive health care workers: An international survey","volume":"5","author":"Andrews","year":"2020","journal-title":"Laryngoscope Investig. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01283-z","article-title":"Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome","volume":"27","author":"Nalbandian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.0225","article-title":"Assessing Brain Capillaries in Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"78","author":"Nauen","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s10286-020-00727-9","article-title":"A case report of postural tachycardia syndrome after COVID-19","volume":"30","author":"Miglis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Auton. Research. Nat. Publ. Group"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2004.06.022","article-title":"Tachycardia amongst subjects recovering from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)","volume":"100","author":"Lau","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"E63","article-title":"Autonomic dysfunction in \u2018long COVID\u2019: Rationale, physiology and management strategies. Clinical Medicine","volume":"21","author":"Dani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. R. Coll. Physicians Lond."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2021.102631","article-title":"Autoimmune dysautonomia in women with silicone breast implants","volume":"120","author":"Halpert","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203314524468","article-title":"Postural tachycardia syndrome (POTS) and other autonomic disorders in antiphospholipid (Hughes) syndrome (APS)","volume":"23","author":"Schofield","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jash.2011.10.003","article-title":"Autoantibody activation of beta-adrenergic and muscarinic receptors contributes to an \u201cautoimmune\u201d orthostatic hypotension","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Townsend, L., Moloney, D., Finucane, C., McCarthy, K., Bergin, C., Bannan, C., and Kenny, R.-A. (2021). Fatigue following COVID-19 infection is not associated with autonomic dysfunction. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247280"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.701419","article-title":"A Paradigm for Post-COVID-19 Fatigue Syndrome Analogous to ME\/CFS","volume":"12","author":"Mackay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryabkova, V.A., Churilov, L.P., and Shoenfeld, Y. (2019). Neuroimmunology: What role for autoimmunity, neuroinflammation, and small fiber neuropathy in fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, and adverse events after human papillomavirus vaccination?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20205164"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cortes Rivera, M., Mastronardi, C., Silva-Aldana, C.T., Arcos-Burgos, M., and Lidbury, B.A. (2019). Myalgic encephalomyelitis\/chronic fatigue syndrome: A comprehensive review. Diagnostics. Diagn., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics9030091"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1071\/HC19041","article-title":"A neuro-inflammatory model can explain the onset, symptoms and flare-ups of myalgic encephalomyelitis\/chronic fatigue syndrome","volume":"11","author":"Mackay","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Prim. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2058738418812342","DOI":"10.1177\/2058738418812342","article-title":"A compromised paraventricular nucleus within a dysfunctional hypothalamus: A novel neuroinflammatory paradigm for ME\/CFS","volume":"32","author":"Mackay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668944","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.668944","article-title":"Adolescent and Young Adult ME\/CFS After Confirmed or Probable COVID-19","volume":"8","author":"Petracek","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of chronic fatigue syndrome\/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS\/ME)","volume":"18","author":"Lim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Medicine. BioMed Cent."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202009-1175OC","article-title":"Persistent poor health after COVID-19 is not associated with respiratory complications or initial disease severity","volume":"18","author":"Townsend","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110043","article-title":"Autoimmunity to ACE2 as a possible cause of tissue inflammation in COVID-19","volume":"144","author":"Townsend","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108426","article-title":"On the molecular determinants of the SARS-CoV-2 attack","volume":"215","author":"Kanduc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cappello, F., Marino Gammazza, A., Dieli, F., Conway de Macario, E., and Macario, A.J. (2020). Does sars-cov-2 trigger stress-induced autoimmunity by molecular mimicry? A hypothesis. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9072038"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1007\/s12192-020-01148-3","article-title":"Human molecular chaperones share with SARS-CoV-2 antigenic epitopes potentially capable of eliciting autoimmunity against endothelial cells: Possible role of molecular mimicry in COVID-19","volume":"25","author":"Gammazza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Stress Chaperones"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1007\/s12192-020-01112-1","article-title":"Is COVID-19 a proteiform disease inducing also molecular mimicry phenomena?. Cell Stress and Chaperones","volume":"25","author":"Cappello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Stress Chaperones"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110055","article-title":"Into the looking glass: Post-viral syndrome post COVID-19","volume":"144","author":"Perrin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoto.2020.2366","article-title":"Ultrastructural evidence of direct viral damage to the olfactory complex in patients testing positive for SARS-COV-2","volume":"146","author":"Morbini","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Otolaryngol.\u2014Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-00758-5","article-title":"Olfactory transmucosal SARS-CoV-2 invasion as a port of central nervous system entry in individuals with COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Meinhardt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2286-9","article-title":"A SARS-CoV-2 protein interaction map reveals targets for drug repurposing","volume":"583","author":"Gordon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e174","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2020.35.e174","article-title":"Prevalence and duration of acute loss of smell or taste in COVID-19 patients","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"e1060","article-title":"Neurologic manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: The ALBACOVID registry","volume":"95","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-020-02166-2","article-title":"Neuropathology of COVID-19: A spectrum of vascular and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)-like pathology","volume":"140","author":"Reichard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X13666150630171433","article-title":"The Involvement of TNF-\u03b1 in Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Major Depressive Disorder: An Opportunity for Domain Specific Treatments","volume":"13","author":"Bortolato","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02247","article-title":"Immunosenescence and its hallmarks: How to oppose aging strategically? A review of potential options for therapeutic intervention","volume":"10","author":"Aiello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.03.062","article-title":"A first case of meningitis\/encephalitis associated with SARS-Coronavirus-2","volume":"94","author":"Moriguchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59136","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.59136","article-title":"Neuropathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"9","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc5801","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abc5801","article-title":"Non-neuronal expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry genes in the olfactory system suggests mechanisms underlying COVID-19-associated anosmia","volume":"6","author":"Brann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtauto.2021.100100","article-title":"Functional autoantibodies against G-protein coupled receptors in patients with persistent Long-COVID-19 symptoms","volume":"4","author":"Wallukat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e015989","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.120.015989","article-title":"Serum activity against g protein\u2013coupled receptors and severity of orthostatic symptoms in postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Kharraziha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medj.2021.03.013","article-title":"Alterations in T and B cell function persist in convalescent COVID-19 patients","volume":"2","author":"Shuwa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med [Letter]"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0159921","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01599-21","article-title":"Immunological Profiling of COVID-19 Patients with Pulmonary Sequelae","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orologas-Stavrou, N., Politou, M., Rousakis, P., Kostopoulos, I.V., Ntanasis-Stathopoulos, I., Jahaj, E., Tsiligkeridou, E., Gavriatopoulou, M., Kastritis, E., and Kotanidou, A. (2021). Peripheral blood immune profiling of convalescent plasma donors reveals alterations in specific immune subpopulations even at 2 months post sars-cov-2 infection. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13010026"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-018-0004-4","article-title":"When worlds collide: Th17 and Treg cells in cancer and autoimmunity","volume":"15","author":"Knochelmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6588","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI141054","article-title":"Peripheral CD4+ T cell subsets and antibody response in COVID-19 convalescent individuals","volume":"130","author":"Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3447","article-title":"The good, the bad and the ugly-T FH cells in human health and disease","volume":"13","author":"Tangye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/25785826.2020.1776079","article-title":"T follicular helper cell subsets: A potential key player in autoimmunity","volume":"44","author":"Kurata","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunol. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-00949-7","article-title":"Not-so-opposite ends of the spectrum: CD8+ T cell dysfunction across chronic infection, cancer and autoimmunity","volume":"22","author":"Collier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2021.107685","article-title":"Immunological and inflammatory profiles during acute and convalescent phases of severe\/ critically ill COVID-19 patients","volume":"97","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01292-y","article-title":"Attributes and predictors of long COVID","volume":"27","author":"Sudre","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malkova, A., Kudlay, D., Kudryavtsev, I., Starshinova, A., Yablonskiy, P., and Shoenfeld, Y. (2021). Immunogenetic predictors of severe COVID-19. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9030211"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1321060111","article-title":"Systems analysis of sex differences reveals an immunosuppressive role for testosterone in the response to influenza vaccination","volume":"111","author":"Furman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01931","article-title":"Sex hormones determine immune response","volume":"9","author":"Taneja","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202001-0179LE","article-title":"Single-Cell RNA Expression Profiling of ACE2, the Receptor of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"202","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, Y., Zhao, J., Martin, W., Kallianpur, A., Chung, M.K., Jehi, L., Sharifi, N., Erzurum, S., Eng, C., and Cheng, F. (2020). New insights into genetic susceptibility of COVID-19: An ACE2 and TMPRSS2 polymorphism analysis. BMC Med., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-020-01673-z"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0147-1","article-title":"Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV\/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations","volume":"6","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2700-3","article-title":"Sex differences in immune responses that underlie COVID-19 disease outcomes","volume":"588","author":"Takahashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team (2020). The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19). China CDC Wkly., 2, 113\u2013122.","DOI":"10.46234\/ccdcw2020.032"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25989","article-title":"A comparison study of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody between male and female COVID-19 patients: A possible reason underlying different outcome between sex","volume":"92","author":"Zeng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"e8094","article-title":"The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review","volume":"12","author":"Angum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"100162","article-title":"Anosmia as a predictor for post-COVID-19 fatigue syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Wostyn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health\u2014Eur."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.641900","article-title":"Association of HLA Class I Genotypes with Severity of Coronavirus Disease-19","volume":"12","author":"Shkurnikov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/tan.14284","article-title":"The influence of HLA genotype on the severity of COVID-19 infection","volume":"98","author":"Langton","year":"2021","journal-title":"HLA"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.5811\/cpcem.2020.7.48254","article-title":"Patients with Mild COVID-19 Symptoms and Coincident Pulmonary Embolism: A Case Series","volume":"4","author":"Joseph","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Pract. Cases Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.1585","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients with 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China","volume":"323","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA J. Am. Med Assoc."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236571","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2020-236571","article-title":"Long-segment arterial cerebral vessel thrombosis after mild COVID-19","volume":"13","author":"Sartoretti","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/11\/1408\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:23:21Z","timestamp":1760167401000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/10\/11\/1408"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,30]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens10111408"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens10111408","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,30]]}}}