{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T10:13:42Z","timestamp":1777976022422,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,3]],"date-time":"2021-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638489600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Q fever is an almost ubiquitous zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. This organism infects several animal species, as well as humans, and domestic ruminants like cattle, sheep and goats are an important animal reservoir of C. burnetii. In 2007, a sudden rise in notified human Q fever cases occurred in The Netherlands, and by the end of 2009, more than 3500 human Q fever patients had been notified. Dairy sheep and dairy goats were suspected to play a causal role in this human Q fever outbreak, and several measures were taken, aiming at a reduction of C. burnetii shedding by infected small ruminants, in order to reduce environmental contamination and thus human exposure. One of the first measures was compulsory notification of more than five percent abortion within thirty days for dairy sheep and dairy goat farms, starting 12 June 2008. After notification, an official farm inspection took place, and laboratory investigations were performed aiming at ruling out or demonstrating a causal role of C. burnetii. These measures were effective, and the number of human Q fever cases decreased; levels are currently the same as they were prior to 2007. The effect of these measures was monitored using a bulk tank milk (BTM) PCR and an antibody ELISA. The percentage PCR positive dairy herds and flocks decreased over time, and dairy sheep flocks tested PCR positive significantly less often and became PCR negative earlier compared to dairy goat herds. Although there was no difference in the percentage of dairy goat and dairy sheep farms with a C. burnetii abortion outbreak, the total number of shedding dairy sheep was much lower than the number of shedding dairy goats. Combined with the fact that Q fever patients lived mainly in the proximity of infected dairy goat farms and that no Q fever patients could be linked directly to dairy sheep farms, although this may have happened in individual cases, we conclude that dairy sheep did not play a major role in the Dutch Q fever outbreak. BTM monitoring using both a PCR and an ELISA is essential to determine a potential C. burnetii risk, not only for The Netherlands but for other countries with small ruminant dairy industries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10121579","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,6]],"date-time":"2021-12-06T03:10:38Z","timestamp":1638760238000},"page":"1579","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Dairy Sheep Played a Minor Role in the 2005\u20132010 Human Q Fever Outbreak in The Netherlands Compared to Dairy Goats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Piet","family":"Vellema","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Ruminant Health, Royal GD, P.O. Box 9, 7400 AA Deventer, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4628-8479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inge","family":"Santman-Berends","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Royal GD, P.O. Box 9, 7400 AA Deventer, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0012-740X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederika","family":"Dijkstra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9941-1130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erik","family":"van Engelen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Royal GD, P.O. Box 9, 7400 AA Deventer, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marian","family":"Aalberts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Royal GD, P.O. Box 9, 7400 AA Deventer, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carlijn","family":"ter Bogt-Kappert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Ruminant Health, Royal GD, P.O. Box 9, 7400 AA Deventer, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ren\u00e9","family":"van den Brom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Ruminant Health, Royal GD, P.O. Box 9, 7400 AA Deventer, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/169195a0","article-title":"Experimental and natural infections of birds by Coxiella burnetii","volume":"169","author":"Babudieri","year":"1952","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2005010","article-title":"Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis?","volume":"36","author":"Rodolakis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. 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