{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]],"date-time":"2026-04-12T19:26:09Z","timestamp":1776021969655,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,15]],"date-time":"2022-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642204800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human babesiosis results from a combination of tick tropism for humans, susceptibility of a host to sustain Babesia development, and contact with infected ticks. Climate modifications and increasing diagnostics have led to an expanded number of Babesia species responsible for human babesiosis, although, to date, most cases have been attributed to B. microti and B. divergens. These two species have been extensively studied, and in this review, we mostly focus on the antigens involved in host\u2013parasite interactions. We present features of the major antigens, so-called Bd37 in B. divergens and BmSA1\/GPI12 in B. microti, and highlight the roles of these antigens in both host cell invasion and immune response. A comparison of these antigens with the major antigens found in some other Apicomplexa species emphasizes the importance of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins in host\u2013parasite relationships. GPI-anchor cleavage, which is a property of such antigens, leads to soluble and membrane-bound forms of these proteins, with potentially differential recognition by the host immune system. This mechanism is discussed as the structural basis for the protein-embedded immune escape mechanism. In conclusion, the potential consequences of such a mechanism on the management of both human and animal babesiosis is examined.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11010099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,16]],"date-time":"2022-01-16T20:45:21Z","timestamp":1642365921000},"page":"99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Major Surface Antigens in Zoonotic Babesia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2813-1219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephane","family":"Delbecq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Biologie Structurale, Facult\u00e9 de Pharmacie, University of Montpellier, UMR CNRS 5048, 34090 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1097\/MOH.0000000000000606","article-title":"Human babesiosis: Recent advances and future challenges","volume":"27","author":"Lobo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.13.3.451","article-title":"Babesiosis","volume":"13","author":"Homer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Young, K.M., Corrin, T., Wilhelm, B., Uhland, C., Greig, J., Mascarenhas, M., and Waddell, L.A. (2019). Zoonotic Babesia: A scoping review of the global evidence. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0226781"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scott, J.D., Sajid, M.S., Pascoe, E.L., and Foley, J.E. (2021). Detection of Babesia odocoilei in humans with babesiosis symptoms. Diagnostics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11060947"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00928-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00928-20","article-title":"Four-dimensional characterization of the Babesia divergens asexual life cycle, from the trophozoite to the multiparasite stage","volume":"5","author":"Conesa","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.01.007","article-title":"Babesia life cycle\u2014When phylogeny meets biology","volume":"35","author":"Jalovecka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7696(07)62001-4","article-title":"Adhesion molecules and other secreted host-interaction determinants in Apicomplexa: Insights from comparative genomics","volume":"262","author":"Anantharaman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Cytol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2015.09.011","article-title":"The march toward malaria vaccines","volume":"49","author":"Hoffman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1038\/nature00937","article-title":"Synthetic GPI as a candidate anti-toxic vaccine in a model of malaria","volume":"418","author":"Schofield","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-9055-9_10","article-title":"Metabolic labeling and structural analysis of glycosylphosphatidylinositols from parasitic protozoa","volume":"1934","author":"Azzouz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwq038","article-title":"Immunological reactions in response to apicomplexan glycosylphosphatidylinositols","volume":"20","author":"Schwarz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(95)02518-9","article-title":"Structural analysis of the glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol membrane anchor of the merozoite surface proteins-1 and -2 of Plasmodium falciparum","volume":"75","author":"Gerold","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2009.09.024","article-title":"Babesia bovis contains an abundant parasite-specific protein-free glycerophosphatidylinositol and the genes predicted for its assembly","volume":"167","author":"Couto","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2019.09.007","article-title":"Babesia divergens glycosylphosphatidylinositols modulate blood coagulation and induce Th2-biased cytokine profiles in antigen presenting cells","volume":"167","author":"Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2018.12.002","article-title":"Vaccination against babesiosis using recombinant GPI-Anchored proteins","volume":"49","author":"Schnittger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182014000961","article-title":"Vaccines against bovine babesiosis: Where we are now and possible roads ahead","volume":"141","author":"Suarez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2013.12.011","article-title":"The glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein repertoire of Babesia bovis and its significance for erythrocyte invasion","volume":"5","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ticks Tick Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.63.3.811-817.1995","article-title":"A 37-Kilodalton Glycoprotein of Babesia divergens is a major component of a protective fraction containing low-molecular-mass culture-derived exoantigens","volume":"63","author":"Carcy","year":"1995","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3046","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.03046","article-title":"Surface Antigen 1 is a crucial secreted protein that mediates Babesia microti invasion into host cells","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(92)90129-8","article-title":"Neutralization-sensitive merozoite surface antigens of Babesia bovis encoded by members of a polymorphic gene family","volume":"55","author":"Hines","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-6851(91)90181-5","article-title":"Molecular characterization and immunogenicity of neutralization-sensitive Babesia bigemina merozoite surface proteins","volume":"47","author":"McElwain","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9495","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.260745","article-title":"Structural and functional characterization of bc28.1, major erythrocyte-binding protein from Babesia canis merozoite surface","volume":"287","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1518-1","article-title":"Molecular identification and antigenic characterization of a merozoite surface antigen and a secreted antigen of Babesia canis (BcMSA1 and BcSA1)","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2017.11.002","article-title":"Discovery of a recombinant Babesia canis supernatant antigen that protects dogs against virulent challenge infection","volume":"249","author":"Moubri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.61.2.734-741.1993","article-title":"Cellular and humoral immune responses induced in cattle by vaccination with Babesia divergens culture-derived exoantigens correlate with protection","volume":"61","author":"Valentin","year":"1993","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(89)90607-X","article-title":"Application of exoantigens of Babesia and Plasmodium in vaccine development","volume":"83","author":"James","year":"1989","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2004.11.061","article-title":"Protection against experimental visceral leishmaniasis infection in dogs immunized with purified excreted secreted antigens of Leishmania infantum promastigotes","volume":"23","author":"Lemesre","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2005.02.006","article-title":"Vaccination against canine babesiosis","volume":"21","author":"Schetters","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00364","article-title":"An overview of current knowledge on in vitro Babesia cultivation for production of live attenuated vaccines for bovine babesiosis in Mexico","volume":"7","author":"Alvarez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182097008937","article-title":"Continuous in vitro culture of Babesia divergens in a serum-free medium","volume":"115","author":"Grande","year":"1997","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4076","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.58.12.4076-4082.1990","article-title":"Identification of major Babesiadivergens polypeptides that induce protection against homologous challenge in gerbils","volume":"58","author":"Gorenflot","year":"1990","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2004.01.002","article-title":"Association between sequence polymorphism in an epitope of Babesia divergens Bd37 exoantigen and protection induced by passive transfer","volume":"34","author":"Precigout","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182002002160","article-title":"Babesia divergens: Cloning and biochemical characterization of Bd37","volume":"125","author":"Delbecq","year":"2002","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01194-14","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.01194-14","article-title":"High-quality draft genome sequence of Babesia divergens, the etiological agent of cattle and human babesiosis","volume":"2","author":"Cuesta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7113","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gku322","article-title":"The evolutionary dynamics of variant antigen genes in Babesia reveal a history of genomic innovation underlying host-parasite interaction","volume":"42","author":"Jackson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, L.M., Estrada, K., Grande, R., Jim\u00e9nez-Jacinto, V., Vega-Alvarado, L., Sevilla, E., de la Barrera, J., Cuesta, I., Zaballos, \u00c1., and Bautista, J.M. (2019). Comparative and functional genomics of the protozoan parasite Babesia divergens highlighting the invasion and egress processes. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007680"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2006.01.038","article-title":"Genetic basis for GPI-Anchor merozoite surface antigen polymorphism of Babesia and resulting antigenic diversity","volume":"138","author":"Carcy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182006001399","article-title":"Recombinant protein Bd37 protected gerbils against heterologous challenges with isolates of Babesia divergens polymorphic for the Bd37 gene","volume":"134","author":"Carcy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2005.08.073","article-title":"Hydrophobic moeties in recombinant proteins are crucial to generate efficient saponin-based vaccine against apicomplexan Babesiadivergens","volume":"24","author":"Delbecq","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2007.08.019","article-title":"The solution structure of the adhesion protein Bd37 from Babesia divergens reveals structural homology with eukaryotic proteins involved in membrane trafficking","volume":"375","author":"Delbecq","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9102","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gks700","article-title":"Sequencing of the smallest apicomplexan genome from the human pathogen Babesia microti","volume":"40","author":"Cornillot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35284","DOI":"10.1038\/srep35284","article-title":"Genome-wide diversity and gene expression profiling of Babesia microti isolates identify polymorphic genes that mediate host-pathogen interactions","volume":"6","author":"Silva","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697669","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.697669","article-title":"Babesia microti: Pathogen genomics, genetic variability, immunodominant antigens, and pathogenesis","volume":"12","author":"Puri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2085","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.13640","article-title":"A targeted immunomic approach identifies diagnostic antigens in the human pathogen Babesia Microti","volume":"56","author":"Cornillot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2010.11.001","article-title":"Identification and characterization of a novel secreted antigen 1 of Babesia microti and evaluation of its potential use in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunochromatographic test","volume":"60","author":"Luo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.68.5.2783-2790.2000","article-title":"Serological expression cloning of novel immunoreactive antigens of Babesia microti","volume":"68","author":"Lodes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9598","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-66273-6","article-title":"Antigen discovery, bioinformatics and biological characterization of novel immunodominant Babesia microti antigens","volume":"10","author":"Verma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00934377","article-title":"Cytological and immunological responses to Babesia divergens in different hosts: Ox, gerbil, man","volume":"77","author":"Gorenflot","year":"1991","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201900382","DOI":"10.26508\/lsa.201900382","article-title":"Evidence for vesicle-mediated antigen export by the human pathogen Babesia microti","volume":"2","author":"Thekkiniath","year":"2019","journal-title":"Life Sci. Alliance"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00067-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00067-18","article-title":"BmGPAC, an antigen capture assay for detection of active Babesia microti infection","volume":"56","author":"Thekkiniath","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2018.10.003","article-title":"A library of recombinant Babesia microti cell surface and secreted proteins for diagnostics discovery and reverse vaccinology","volume":"49","author":"Elton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02545","article-title":"Evaluation of a major surface antigen of Babesia microti merozoites as a vaccine candidate against Babesia infection","volume":"8","author":"Man","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14116","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-32349-7","article-title":"Kinetics of the invasion and egress processes of Babesia divergens, observed by time-lapse video microscopy","volume":"8","author":"Sevilla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.00-0415hyp","article-title":"GPI-Anchored proteins: Now you see \u2019em, now you don\u2019t","volume":"15","author":"Malherbe","year":"2001","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5396","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c00092","article-title":"Impact of antigen density on recognition by monoclonal antibodies","volume":"92","author":"Bar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0968-0004(03)00135-X","article-title":"Conformational diversity and protein evolution\u2014A 60-year-old hypothesis revisited","volume":"28","author":"James","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10815","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0804721105","article-title":"Structural changes of membrane-anchored native PrP(C)","volume":"105","author":"Elfrink","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.4161\/pri.27892","article-title":"The GPI-Anchoring of PrP: Implications in sorting and pathogenesis","volume":"8","author":"Puig","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prion"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puig, B., Altmeppen, H.C., Linsenmeier, L., Chakroun, K., Wegwitz, F., Piontek, U.K., Tatzelt, J., Bate, C., Magnus, T., and Glatzel, M. (2019). GPI-Anchor signal sequence influences PrPC sorting, shedding and signalling, and impacts on different pathomechanistic aspects of prion disease in mice. PLoS Pathog., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007520"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.2012.178","article-title":"Effect of the GPI anchor of human Thy-1 on antibody recognition and function","volume":"93","author":"Bradley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1007\/s10719-015-9595-5","article-title":"Each GPI-Anchored protein species forms a specific lipid raft depending on its GPI attachment signal","volume":"32","author":"Kotani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glycoconj. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200032","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-9199-jvatitd-2020-0032","article-title":"Production of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins for vaccines and directed binding of immunoliposomes to specific cell types","volume":"26","author":"Fotoran","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Venom. Anim. Toxins Incl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mott, G.A., Wilson, R., Fernando, A., Robinson, A., MacGregor, P., Kennedy, D., Schaap, D., Matthews, J.B., and Matthews, K.R. (2011). Targeting cattle-borne zoonoses and cattle pathogens using a novel trypanosomatid-based delivery system. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002340"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2019.06.008","article-title":"The Cryptosporidium parvum gp60 glycoprotein expressed in the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila is immunoreactive with sera of calves infected with Cryptosporidium oocysts","volume":"271","author":"Elguero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00943-0","article-title":"Efficacy of a low-dose candidate malaria vaccine, R21 in adjuvant Matrix-M, with seasonal administration to children in Burkina Faso: A Randomised Controlled Trial","volume":"397","author":"Datoo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2020.101435","article-title":"Imported babesiosis caused by Babesia microti\u2014A Case Report","volume":"11","author":"Chueca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ticks Tick Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21349-2","article-title":"A multiplex serologic platform for diagnosis of tick-borne diseases","volume":"8","author":"Tokarz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2015.02.005","article-title":"First report of Babesia divergens infection in an HIV patient","volume":"33","author":"Castro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.04.008","article-title":"Pre-clinical evaluation of a whole-parasite vaccine to control human babesiosis","volume":"29","author":"Cooper","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19974","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.AC118.005771","article-title":"Establishment of a continuous in vitro culture of Babesia duncani in human erythrocytes reveals unusually high tolerance to recommended therapies","volume":"293","author":"Abraham","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2018.11.007","article-title":"Identification of novel vaccine candidates against Cryptosporidiosis of neonatal bovines by reverse vaccinology","volume":"264","author":"Tomazic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/1\/99\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:15:04Z","timestamp":1760364904000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/1\/99"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,15]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens11010099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens11010099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,15]]}}}