{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T01:43:49Z","timestamp":1790819029916,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Babesia and Theileria are apicomplexan parasites that cause established and emerging diseases in humans, domestic and wild animals. These protozoans are transmitted by Ixodid ticks causing babesiosis or theileriosis, both characterized by fever, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, and splenomegaly. In North America (NA), the most common species affecting humans is B. microti, which is distributed in the Northeastern and Upper Midwestern United States (US), where the tick vector Ixodes scapularis is established. In livestock, B. bovis and B. bigemina are the most important pathogens causing bovine babesiosis in tropical regions of Mexico. Despite efforts toward eradication of their tick vector, Rhipicephalus microplus, B. bovis and B. bigemina present a constant threat of being reintroduced into the southern US and represent a continuous concern for the US cattle industry. Occasional outbreaks of T. equi, and T. orientalis have occurred in horses and cattle, respectively, in the US, with significant economic implications for livestock including quarantine, production loss, and euthanasia of infected animals. In addition, a new species, T. haneyi, has been recently discovered in horses from the Mexico-US border. Domestic dogs are hosts to at least four species of Babesia in NA that may result in clinical disease that ranges from subclinical to acute, severe anemia. Herein we review the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and epidemiology of the most important diseases caused by Babesia and Theileria to humans, domestic and wild animals in Canada, the US, and Mexico.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11020168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T22:00:56Z","timestamp":1643320856000},"page":"168","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":79,"title":["Babesiosis and Theileriosis in North America"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Consuelo","family":"Almaz\u00e1n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunology and Vaccines Laboratory, C. A. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Carretera a Chichimequillas, Queretaro 76140, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5795-5906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruth C.","family":"Scimeca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5771-6769","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mason V.","family":"Reichard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8892-6390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan","family":"Mosqueda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunology and Vaccines Laboratory, C. A. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Carretera a Chichimequillas, Queretaro 76140, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicholson, W.L., Sonenshine, D.E., Noden, B.H., and Brown, R.N. (2019). Ticks (Ixodida). Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-814043-7.00027-3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sonenshine, D.E. (2018). Range Expansion of Tick Disease Vectors in North America: Implications for Spread of Tick-Borne Disease. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15030478"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guglielmone, A.A., and Robbins, R.G. (2018). 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