{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T07:25:59Z","timestamp":1790925959488,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]],"date-time":"2022-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648684800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001665","name":"Agence Nationale de la Recherche","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ANR-18-CE35-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-18-CE35-0001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006537","name":"Campus France","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006537","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008895","name":"Tertiary Education Trust Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008895","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Schistosomiasis is a major poverty-related disease caused by dioecious parasitic flatworms of the genus Schistosoma with a health impact on both humans and animals. Hybrids of human urogenital schistosome and bovine intestinal schistosome have been reported in humans in several of Nigeria\u2019s neighboring West African countries. No empirical studies have been carried out on the genomic diversity of Schistosoma\u00a0haematobium in Nigeria. Here, we present novel data on the presence and prevalence of hybrids and the population genetic structure of S. haematobium. Methods: 165 Schistosoma-positive urine samples were obtained from 12 sampling sites in Nigeria. Schistosoma\u00a0haematobium eggs from each sample were hatched and each individual miracidium was picked and preserved in Whatman\u00ae FTA cards for genomic analysis. Approximately 1364 parasites were molecularly characterized by rapid diagnostic multiplex polymerase chain reaction (RD-PCR) for mitochondrial DNA gene (Cox1 mtDNA) and a subset of 1136 miracidia were genotyped using a panel of 18 microsatellite markers. Results: No significant difference was observed in the population genetic diversity (p &gt; 0.05), though a significant difference was observed in the allelic richness of the sites except sites 7, 8, and 9 (p &lt; 0.05). Moreover, we observed two clusters of populations: west (populations 1\u20134) and east (populations 7\u201312). Of the 1364 miracidia genotyped, 1212 (89%) showed an S. bovis Cox1 profile and 152 (11%) showed an S. haematobium cox1 profile. All parasites showed an S. bovis Cox1 profile except for some at sites 3 and 4. Schistosoma miracidia full genotyping showed 59.3% of the S. bovis ITS2 allele. Conclusions: This study provides novel insight into hybridization and population genetic structure of S. haematobium in Nigeria. Our findings suggest that S. haematobium x S. bovis hybrids are common in Nigeria. More genomic studies on both human- and animal-infecting parasites are needed to ascertain the role of animals in schistosome transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11040425","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]],"date-time":"2022-03-31T21:34:29Z","timestamp":1648762469000},"page":"425","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Population Genetic Structure and Hybridization of Schistosoma haematobium in Nigeria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3587-1861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amos Mathias","family":"Onyekwere","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Nigeria"},{"name":"IHPE, University Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, University Perpignan Via Domitia, F-66000 Perpignan, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3699-7204","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivier","family":"Rey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHPE, University Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, University Perpignan Via Domitia, F-66000 Perpignan, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6343-308X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Allienne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHPE, University Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, University Perpignan Via Domitia, F-66000 Perpignan, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9843-7566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monday Chukwu","family":"Nwanchor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Akwa PMB 5025, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moses","family":"Alo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clementina","family":"Uwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki PMB 1010, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0793-3108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jerome","family":"Boissier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHPE, University Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, University Perpignan Via Domitia, F-66000 Perpignan, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hotez, P.J., Alvarado, M., Basanez, M.G., Bolliger, I., Bourne, R., Boussinesq, M., Brooker, S.J., Brown, A.S., Buckle, G., and Budke, C.M. (2014). The global burden of disease study 2010: Interpretation and implications for the neglected tropical diseases. PLoS Negl. Trop Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002865"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Rose, J.B., and Jim\u00e9nez-Cisneros, B. (2019). Schistosoma spp. (Robertson, L (eds) Part 4 Helminths), Michigan State University."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panzner, U., and Boissier, J. (2021). Natural Intra- and Interclade Human Hybrid Schistosomes in Africa with Considerations on Prevention through Vaccination. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9071465"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182016001190","article-title":"Hybridizations within the Genus Schistosoma: Implications for evolution, epidemiology and control","volume":"144","author":"Leger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(08)60231-6","article-title":"The distribution of Schistosoma bovis Sonsino, 1876 in relation to intermediate host mollusc-parasite relationships","volume":"44","author":"Mone","year":"1999","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3307-0","article-title":"Population genetic structure of Schistosoma bovis in Cameroon","volume":"12","author":"Alliene","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huyse, T., Webster, B.L., Geldof, S., Stothard, J.R., Diaw, O.T., Polman, K., and Rollinson, D. (2009). Bidirectional introgressive hybridization between a cattle and human schistosome species. PLoS Pathog., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000571"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018001415","article-title":"Urogenital schistosomiasis and hybridization between Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma bovis in adults living in Richard-Toll, Senegal","volume":"145","author":"Marchand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182019001549","article-title":"High prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium \u00d7 Schistosoma bovis hybrids in schoolchildren in Cote d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"147","author":"Angora","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(80)90091-7","article-title":"Hybrids between Schistosoma haematobium and S. mattheei and their identification by isoelectric focusing of enzymes","volume":"74","author":"Wright","year":"1980","journal-title":"Trans. R Soc. Trop Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X00012384","article-title":"Do all human urinary infections with Schistosoma mattheei represent hybridization between S. haematobium and S. mattheei?","volume":"64","author":"Kruger","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webster, B.L., Diaw, O.T., Seye, M.M., Webster, J.P., and Rollinson, D. (2013). Introgressive hybridization of Schistosoma haematobium group species in Senegal: Species barrier break down between ruminant and human schistosomes. PLoS Negl. Trop Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002110"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2013.04.001","article-title":"Hybridisation between the two major African schistosome species of humans","volume":"43","author":"Huyse","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2502.172028","article-title":"Schistosoma haematobium-Schistosoma mansoni Hybrid Parasite in Migrant Boy, France, 2017","volume":"25","author":"Allienne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2019010","article-title":"No limit in interspecific hybridization in schistosomes: Observation from a case report","volume":"26","author":"Depaquit","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"667","article-title":"Arguments en faveur d\u2019une modification du g\u00e9nome (introgression) du parasite humain Schistosoma haematobium par des g\u00e8nes de S. bovis, au Niger","volume":"316","author":"Sellin","year":"1993","journal-title":"Comptes-Rendus L\u2019acad\u00e9mie Des. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4127","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-015-4643-4","article-title":"Introgressive hybridizations of Schistosoma haematobium by Schistosoma bovis at the origin of the first case report of schistosomiasis in Corsica (France, Europe)","volume":"114","author":"Mone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)00175-4","article-title":"Outbreak of urogenital schistosomiasis in Corsica (France): An epidemiological case study","volume":"16","author":"Boissier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy029","article-title":"Rodents as Natural Hosts of Zoonotic Schistosoma Species and Hybrids: An Epidemiological and Evolutionary Perspective From West Africa","volume":"218","author":"Catalano","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-021-07099-7","article-title":"Mastomys natalensis (Smith, 1834) as a natural host for Schistosoma haematobium (Bilharz, 1852) Weinland, 1858 \u00d7 Schistosoma bovis Sonsino, 1876 introgressive hybrids","volume":"120","author":"Savassi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-020-06709-0","article-title":"Cattle as natural host for Schistosoma haematobium (Bilharz, 1852) Weinland, 1858 \u00d7 Schistosoma bovis Sonsino, 1876 interactions, with new cercarial emergence and genetic patterns","volume":"119","author":"Savassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1080\/00222938500770801","article-title":"On Schistosoma curassoni, S. haematobium and S. bovis from Senegal: Development in Mesocricetus auratus, compatibility with species of Bulinus and their enzymes","volume":"19","author":"Southgate","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"220","article-title":"Studies on transmission and schistosome interactions in Senegal, Mali and Zambia","volume":"46","author":"Vercruysse","year":"1994","journal-title":"Trop Geogr. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1079\/JOH2005306","article-title":"The interaction of Schistosoma haematobium and S. guineensis in Cameroon","volume":"79","author":"Webster","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793420","DOI":"10.1100\/2012\/793420","article-title":"Natural Interactions between S. haematobium and S. guineensis in the Republic of Benin","volume":"2012","author":"Mone","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X00001516","article-title":"Cattle schistosomiasis in Zambia","volume":"68","author":"Vercruysse","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2021.104727","article-title":"Population genetics of African Schistosoma species","volume":"89","author":"Rey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2019.08.004","article-title":"No barrier breakdown between human and cattle schistosome species in the Senegal River Basin in the face of hybridisation","volume":"49","author":"Boon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018000525","article-title":"Barcoding hybrids: Heterogeneous distribution of Schistosoma haematobium \u00d7 Schistosoma bovis hybrids across the Senegal River Basin","volume":"145","author":"Boon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e330","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30129-7","article-title":"Prevalence and distribution of schistosomiasis in human, livestock, and snail populations in northern Senegal: A One Health epidemiological study of a multi-host system","volume":"4","author":"Leger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onyekwere, A.M., Rey, O., Nwanchor, M.C., Alo, M., Angora, E.K., Allienne, J.F., and Boissier, J. (2021). Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Urogenital Schistosomiasis among Primary School Pupils in Nigeria. Parasite Epidemiol. Control, Submitted.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2022.e00255"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angora, E.K., Boissier, J., Menan, H., Rey, O., Tuo, K., Toure, A.O., Coulibaly, J.T., Meite, A., Raso, G., and N\u2019Goran, E.K. (2019). Prevalence and Risk Factors for Schistosomiasis among Schoolchildren in two Settings of Cote d\u2019Ivoire. Trop Med. Infect. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed4030110"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6813","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.15.6813","article-title":"Documentation of reticulate evolution in peonies (Paeonia) using internal transcribed spacer sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA: Implications for biogeography and concerted evolution","volume":"92","author":"Sang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kincaid-Smith, J., Mathieu-Begne, E., Chaparro, C., Reguera-Gomez, M., Mulero, S., Allienne, J.F., Toulza, E., and Boissier, J. (2021). No pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms between Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma bovis parasites: From mating interactions to differential gene expression. PLoS Negl. Trop Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009363"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msz154","article-title":"Ancient Hybridization and Adaptive Introgression of an Invadolysin Gene in Schistosome Parasites","volume":"36","author":"Platt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rey, O., Toulza, E., Chaparro, C., Allienne, J.F., Kincaid-Smith, J., Mathieu-Begne, E., Allan, F., Rollinson, D., Webster, B.L., and Boissier, J. (2021). Diverging patterns of introgression from Schistosoma bovis across S. haematobium African lineages. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009313"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182011000722","article-title":"Population genetics of Schistosoma haematobium: Development of novel microsatellite markers and their application to schistosomiasis control in Mali","volume":"138","author":"Gower","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2006.03.002","article-title":"Microsatellite typing reveals strong genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni from localities in Kenya","volume":"6","author":"Agola","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aemero, M., Boissier, J., Climent, D., Mone, H., Mouahid, G., Berhe, N., and Erko, B. (2015). Genetic diversity, multiplicity of infection and population structure of Schistosoma mansoni isolates from human hosts in Ethiopia. BMC Genet., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12863-015-0297-6"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762008000500017","article-title":"Cheap, rapid and efficient DNA extraction method to perform multilocus microsatellite genotyping on all Schistosoma mansoni stages","volume":"103","author":"Beltran","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X09990447","article-title":"Rapid diagnostic multiplex PCR (RD-PCR) to discriminate Schistosoma haematobium and S. bovis","volume":"84","author":"Webster","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webster, B.L., Emery, A.M., Webster, J.P., Gouvras, A., Garba, A., Diaw, O., Seye, M.M., Tchuente, L.A., Simoonga, C., and Mwanga, J. (2012). Genetic diversity within Schistosoma haematobium: DNA barcoding reveals two distinct groups. PLoS Negl. Trop Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001882"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1044-6","article-title":"Development of novel multiplex microsatellite polymerase chain reactions to enable high-throughput population genetic studies of Schistosoma haematobium","volume":"8","author":"Webster","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-294X.2002.01496.x","article-title":"Tests for sex-biased dispersal using bi-parentally inherited genetic markers","volume":"11","author":"Goudet","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1358","article-title":"Estimating F-Statistics for the Analysis of Population Structure","volume":"38","author":"Weir","year":"1984","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Belkhir, K., Borsa, P., Chikhi, L., Raufaste, N., and Bonhomme, F. (2022, March 30). GENETIX 4.05, Logiciel Sous Windows TM Pour la G\u00e9n\u00e9tique des Populations. Laboratoire G\u00e9nome, Populations, Interactions, CNRS UMR 5000, Universit\u00e9 de Montpellier II, Montpellier (France) 1996. Available online: http:\/\/www.genetix.univ-montp2.fr\/genetix\/constr.htm."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/155.2.945","article-title":"Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data","volume":"155","author":"Pritchard","year":"2000","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2005.02553.x","article-title":"Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: A simulation study","volume":"14","author":"Evanno","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/1755-0998.12509","article-title":"pophelper: An R package and web app to analyse and visualize population structure","volume":"17","author":"Francis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Resour."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-8286.2003.00566.x","article-title":"DISTRUCT: A program for the graphical display of population structure","volume":"4","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Notes"}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/4\/425\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:47:49Z","timestamp":1760136469000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/4\/425"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens11040425"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens11040425","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]]}}}