{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T04:49:12Z","timestamp":1785386952695,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]],"date-time":"2022-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Regional Association for Animal Registration and Health (ARSIA)","award":["Q fever abortion"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Q fever abortion"]}]},{"name":"Federal Agency for Safety of the Food Chain (FASFC)","award":["Surveillance of brucellosis program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Surveillance of brucellosis program"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Q fever is a zoonosis occurring worldwide in livestock. Often neglected in differential diagnoses, Q fever can persist in herds causing financial losses. In ruminants, well-known manifestations of Q fever are metritis, infertility, abortion, stillbirth and delivery of a weak or premature calf. In cattle, Q fever is frequently asymptomatic and\/or under-reported. Few studies are available on the diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii as a cause of abortion in cattle using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for pathogen detection while enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used to assess exposure. Moreover, existing studies include a relatively small number of abortions. The aim of this study is to assess, in the southern part of Belgium, during a year, the performance of diagnosis of C. burnetii as a cause of abortion and the putative benefit of enhanced serology using anamnesis (animal patient data, and present, past and environmental history). A one-year random selection of 1212 abortions was analysed both with the PCR method (tissues from fetuses) and two commercialised ELISAs (sera from the mothers). Relative sensitivity and specificity of the ELISA tests were assessed using PCR as the reference test. The prevalence of C. burnetii PCR positive was 8.5% (95% CI: 6.99\u201310.21). The diagnostic value of the ELISA tests was assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC). The sensitivity, specificity and AUC-ROC were similar for both ELISA tests. The diagnostic capacity of the ELISA was confirmed and slightly enhanced if anamnestic information was integrated with a unique scoring index system. A high negative predictive value was demonstrated and a significant reverse association between Ct values and a percentage of the ratio of the optical density between the sample and the positive control (ELISA A or ELISA B) enabling the use of ELISA as an exclusion diagnostic. This study is original by integrating the serological result and the anamnesis in a single index. It opens a new window in enhanced veterinary clinical decision-making.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11040429","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]],"date-time":"2022-04-01T21:23:55Z","timestamp":1648848235000},"page":"429","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii Cattle Abortion: A One-Year Observational Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9087-7436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claude","family":"Saegerman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH) Center, University of Li\u00e8ge, B-4000 Liege, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabien","family":"Gr\u00e9goire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Association for Animal Registration and Health, B-5530 Ciney, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0679-1240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurent","family":"Delooz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH) Center, University of Li\u00e8ge, B-4000 Liege, Belgium"},{"name":"Regional Association for Animal Registration and Health, B-5530 Ciney, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248418","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/248418","article-title":"Q Fever: Current state of knowledge and perspectives of research of a neglected zoonosis","volume":"2011","author":"Porter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2010.10.007","article-title":"Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii infection in domestic ruminants: A critical review","volume":"149","author":"Guatteo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12465","article-title":"Q fever serological survey and associated risk factors in veterinarians, southern Belgium, 2013","volume":"64","author":"Martinelle","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625576","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.625576","article-title":"Phylogeography of human and animal Coxiella burnetii strains: Genetic fingerprinting of Q Fever in Belgium","volume":"10","author":"Tomaiuolo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02293-10","article-title":"Single-nucleotide-polymorphism genotyping of Coxiella burnetii during a Q fever outbreak in The Netherlands","volume":"77","author":"Huijsmans","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabaza, A., Giannitti, F., Fraga, M., Mac\u00edas-Rioseco, M., Corbellini, L.G., Riet-Correa, F., Hirigoyen, D., Turner, K.M.E., and Eisler, M.C. (2021). Serological Evidence of Human Infection with Coxiella burnetii after Occupational Exposure to Aborting Cattle. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci8090196"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e232","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268820001880","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii infection in humans: To what extent do cattle in infected areas free from small ruminants play a role?","volume":"148","author":"Pouquet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vanderburg, S., Rubach, M.P., Halliday, J.E.B., Cleaveland, S., Reddy, E.A., and Crump, J.A. (2014). Epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii infection in Africa: A OneHealth systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002787"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2011.08.033","article-title":"Apparent prevalence of antibodies to Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) in bulk tank milk from dairy herds in southern Belgium","volume":"192","author":"Czaplicki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12070","article-title":"Clinical indicators of exposure to Coxiella burnetii in dairy herds","volume":"62","author":"Saegerman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2013.10.002","article-title":"Vaccination using phase I vaccine is effective to control Coxiella burnetii shedding in infected dairy cattle herds","volume":"37","author":"Taurel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2014.08.016","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) in Dutch dairy cattle herds based on bulk tank milk testing","volume":"117","author":"Schotten","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12982","article-title":"Classification of adult cattle infectious diseases: A first step towards prioritization of biosecurity measures","volume":"65","author":"Renault","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Hanzen, C.H. (2000). Prop\u00e9deutique et Pathologies de la Reproduction M\u00e2le et Femelle, Universit\u00e9 de Li\u00e8ge, Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire, Service d\u2019Obst\u00e9trique et de Pathologie de la Reproduction des Ruminants, \u00e9quid\u00e9s et Porcs. [4th ed.]. Biotechnologies de la Reproduction; Pathologies de la Glande Mammaire."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bronner, A., H\u00e9naux, V., Vergne, T., Vinard, J.-L., Morignat, E., Hendrikx, P., Calavas, D., and Gay, E. (2013). Assessing the mandatory bovine abortion notification system in France using unilist capture-recapture approach. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063246"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.06.023","article-title":"Diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii-related abortion in Italian domestic ruminants using single-tube nested PCR","volume":"118","author":"Parisi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"106258","article-title":"Molecular detection of Coxiella burnetii in aborted bovine fetuses in Brazil","volume":"2021","author":"Mioni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"92","article-title":"A Case of Imported Q Fever in New Zealand","volume":"132","author":"Isteed","year":"2019","journal-title":"NZMJ"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2005010","article-title":"Is Q fever an emerging or reemerging zoonoses?","volume":"36","author":"Rodolakis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.03.015","article-title":"Comparison of diagnostic potential of serological, molecular and cell culture methods for detection of Q fever in ruminants","volume":"171","author":"Niemczuk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sidi-Boumedine, K., Rousset, E., Henning, K., Ziller, M., Niemczuk, K., Roest, H.I.J., and Thi\u00e9ry, R. (2010). Development of Harmonised Schemes for the Monitoring and Reporting of Q-Fever in Animals in the European Union, EFSA Supporting Publications. EFSA Scientific Report on Question No EFSA-Q-2009-00511.","DOI":"10.2903\/sp.efsa.2010.EN-48"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.09.026","article-title":"Shedding and serological patterns of dairy cows following abortions associated with Coxiella burnetii DNA detection","volume":"155","author":"Guatteo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2038","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01874-07","article-title":"Comparison of PCR, immunofluorescence assay, and pathogen isolation for diagnosis of Q Fever in humans with spontaneous abortions","volume":"46","author":"Vaidya","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.03.007","article-title":"Insights into the dynamics of endemic Coxiella burnetii infection in cattle by application of phase-specific ELISAs in an infected dairy herd","volume":"151","author":"Vossen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.38.3.3025","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with a higher or lower risk of exposure to Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydia abortus and Toxoplasma gondii in dairy cows that have aborted in Algeria","volume":"38","author":"Djellata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-55-80","article-title":"Risk factors for Coxiella burnetii antibodies in bulk tank milk from Danish dairy herds","volume":"55","author":"Agger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-52-14","article-title":"Housing system and herd size interactions in Norwegian dairy herds; associations with performance and disease incidence","volume":"52","author":"Simensen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817000838","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) infection in dairy cattle and associated risk factors in Latvia","volume":"145","author":"Boroduske","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4413","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00610-10","article-title":"Ecological Factors Characterizing the Prevalence of Bacterial Tick-Borne Pathogens in Ixodes ricinus Ticks in Pastures and Woodlands","volume":"76","author":"Halos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00045-16","article-title":"From Q fever to Coxiella burnetii infection: A paradigm change","volume":"30","author":"Eldin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1086\/322034","article-title":"Suburban transmission of Q fever in French Guiana: Evidence of a wild reservoir","volume":"184","author":"Gardon","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2011.05.005","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Q fever in naturally infected dairy cattle herds","volume":"101","author":"Taurel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2718","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2013-7229","article-title":"Changes in the dynamics of Coxiella burnetii infection in dairy cattle: An approach to match field data with the epidemiological cycle of C. burnetii in endemic herds","volume":"97","author":"Hurtado","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2012.05.015","article-title":"Factors associated with Coxiella burnetii antibody positivity in Danish dairy cows","volume":"107","author":"Paul","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1177\/153567600601100106","article-title":"The infectious dose of Coxiella burnetii (Q Fever)","volume":"11","author":"Jones","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Biosaf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12643","article-title":"Serogroups and genotypes of Leptospira spp. strains from bovine aborted foetuses","volume":"65","author":"Delooz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"ARSIA asbl (2021). Rapport Annuel 2020, Jean Detiffe. Available online: www.arsia.be."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s43856-021-00067-3","article-title":"A two-month field cohort study of SARS-CoV-2 in saliva of BNT162b2 vaccinated nursing home workers","volume":"2","author":"Saegerman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Petrie, A., and Watson, P. (2013). Statistics for Veterinary and Animal Science, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/4\/429\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:48:32Z","timestamp":1760136512000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/4\/429"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens11040429"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens11040429","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]]}}}