{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T17:43:22Z","timestamp":1792086202507,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]],"date-time":"2022-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background:Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an opportunistic parasite that causes serious diseases in humans, particularly immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women. To date, there are limited numbers of therapeutics for chronic toxoplasmosis which necessitate the discovery of effective and safe therapeutics. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the antitoxoplasmosis potential of ginger extract in mice with experimentally induced chronic toxoplasmosis. Results: Treatment with ginger extract significantly reduced cysts count in the brains of T. gondii-infected mice with a marked alleviation of edema and inflammation, and a reversal of neuronal injury. Moreover, ginger extract treatment reduced inflammation in liver and lungs and protected hepatocytes from infection-induced degeneration. Consistently, apoptosis was significantly mitigated in the brains of ginger extract-treated mice compared to infected untreated animals or spiramycin-treated animals. Methods: Four groups of Swiss albino mice (10 mice each) were used. The first group was not infected, whereas 3 groups were infected with Me49 T. gondii strains. One infected group remained untreated (infected untreated), whereas the other two infected groups were treated with either ginger extract (250 mg\/kg) or spiramycin (positive control; 100 mg\/kg), respectively. The therapeutic potential of ginger extract was evaluated by calculation of the parasite burden in infected animals, and examination of the infected tissues for reduced pathologic changes. Conclusions: Our results showed for the first time that ginger extract exhibited marked therapeutic effects in mice with chronic T. gondii infection which indicates that it can be used as a safe and effective treatment for chronic toxoplasmosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11070798","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T01:53:22Z","timestamp":1658109202000},"page":"798","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Ginger Is a Potential Therapeutic for Chronic Toxoplasmosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9294-2630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asmaa M.","family":"El-kady","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, South Valley University, Qena 83523, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wafa Abdullah I.","family":"Al-Megrin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2586-9023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iman A. M.","family":"Abdel-Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, South Valley University, Qena 83523, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eman","family":"Sayed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena 83523, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eman Abdullah","family":"Alshehri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4941-5373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Majed H.","family":"Wakid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fadi M.","family":"Baakdah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0703-6757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalil","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Public Health and Health Informatics, Umm Al-Qura University, Mecca 21961, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2892-9271","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hayam","family":"Elshazly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences -Scientific Departments, Qassim University, Buraidah, Qassim 52571, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Beni Suef University, Beni Suef 62521, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6478-1238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hussah M.","family":"Alobaid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7599-225X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Safa H.","family":"Qahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21959, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7771-113X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hatem A.","family":"Elshabrawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Sam Houston State University, Conroe, TX 77304, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1572-6141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salwa S.","family":"Younis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21131, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.2008.00345.x","article-title":"The history of Toxoplasma gondii--the first 100 years","volume":"55","author":"Dubey","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Eukaryot. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0902-6","article-title":"Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis and typing of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.05013-11","article-title":"Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis","volume":"25","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"389","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection in immunocompromised patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"673","article-title":"Global prevalence of latent toxoplasmosis in pregnant women: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Rostami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Off. Publ. Eur. Soc. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2011.10.013","article-title":"Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: Review of worldwide outbreaks\u2014An update 2004-2010","volume":"45","author":"Baldursson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-46652015000500001","article-title":"Human toxoplasmosis outbreaks and the agent infecting form. Findings from a systematic review","volume":"57","author":"Meireles","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04040-2","article-title":"Detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in fresh vegetables and berry fruits","volume":"13","author":"Marques","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5428","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09166-0","article-title":"Investigation of Toxoplasma gondii in wastewater and surface water in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China using real-time PCR and multilocus genotyping","volume":"12","author":"Lass","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00049","article-title":"Environmental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii: Oocysts in water, soil and food","volume":"15","author":"Shapiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1258\/ijsa.2012.012189","article-title":"Isolated cerebellar toxoplasmosis as a complication of HIV infection","volume":"24","author":"Pott","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"37","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis complicating lung cancer: A case report","volume":"8","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Med. Case Rep. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-777X.145248","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis of spinal cord in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient presenting as paraparesis: A rare entity","volume":"6","author":"Agrawal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Glob. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"e104248","article-title":"Anti-Toxoplasma effects of silver nanoparticles based on ginger extract: An in vitro study","volume":"7","author":"KarimiPourSaryazdi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Arch. Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182019001604","article-title":"Rosuvastatin reduced brain parasite burden in a chronic toxoplasmosis in vivo model and influenced the neuropathological pattern of ME-49 strain","volume":"147","author":"Nishi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"e00057-17","article-title":"Treatment of toxoplasmosis: Historical perspective, animal models, and current clinical practice","volume":"31","author":"Rita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1517\/13543776.2012.668886","article-title":"New antibacterials for the treatment of toxoplasmosis; a patent review","volume":"22","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Ther. Pat."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00036","article-title":"Treatment of toxoplasmosis: Current options and future perspectives","volume":"15","author":"Konstantinovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2017.03.006","article-title":"Enhancing immune responses to a DNA vaccine encoding Toxoplasma gondii GRA14 by calcium phosphate nanoparticles as an adjuvant","volume":"185","author":"Ahmadpour","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S60973","article-title":"Drugs in development for toxoplasmosis: Advances, challenges, and current status","volume":"11","author":"Alday","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Des. Devel. Ther."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2008.04.012","article-title":"Anti-Toxoplasma gondii RH strain activity of herbal extracts used in traditional medicine","volume":"32","author":"Choi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.1.2.319","article-title":"Natural products and synthetic compounds as immunomodulators","volume":"1","author":"Kayser","year":"2003","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.5b01055","article-title":"Natural products as sources of new drugs from 1981 to 2014","volume":"79","author":"Newman","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"2283","article-title":"Quality composition and biological significance of the Bangladeshi and China ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.)","volume":"2021","author":"Nandi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s40816-018-0097-4","article-title":"Zingiber officinale Rosc. essential oil, a review on its composition and bioactivity","volume":"5","author":"Mahboubi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Phytoscience"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1079\/JOH2002116","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo studies on the bioactivity of a ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract towards adult schistosomes and their egg production","volume":"76","author":"Sanderson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Helminthol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.4081\/mr.2011.e25","article-title":"In vitro lethal effect of Zingiber officinale R. on protoscolices of hydatid cyst from sheep liver","volume":"2","author":"Moazeni","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2009.05.017","article-title":"Screening of microfilaricidal effects of plant extracts against Dirofilaria immitis","volume":"88","author":"Merawin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"25","article-title":"Evaluation of therapeutic effect of ginger compared to flubendazole on experimental trichinelosis in mice","volume":"27","year":"2006","journal-title":"Egyp J Med Sci"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00025","article-title":"A systematic review of in vitro and in vivo activities of anti-Toxoplasma drugs and compounds (2006\u20132016)","volume":"8","author":"Montazeri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"153","article-title":"Molecular Identification of Toxoplasma gondii in the native slaughtered cattle of Tehran Province, Iran","volume":"6","author":"Dalimi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Qual. Hazards Control."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1177\/0049475518801618","article-title":"Screening of toxoplasmosis in cancer patients: A concern","volume":"49","author":"Abdoli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop. Doct."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(02)01527-1","article-title":"The effect of long-term intermittent trimethoprim\/sulfamethoxazole treatment on recurrences of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis","volume":"134","author":"Silveira","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"193","article-title":"Congenital toxoplasmosis treatment","volume":"15","author":"Serranti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.1.1.175","article-title":"Sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine in the postnatal treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis: What are the options?","volume":"1","author":"Petersen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3045","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-018-6027-z","article-title":"Activities of anti-Toxoplasma drugs and compounds against tissue cysts in the last three decades (1987 to 2017), a systematic review","volume":"117","author":"Montazeri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.2478\/v10136-012-0014-y","article-title":"Antiparasitic effects of Zingiber officinale (ginger) extract against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"11","author":"Choi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"530","article-title":"Ginger and cinnamon: Can this household remedy treat giardiasis? Parasitological and histopathological studies","volume":"9","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2014.770-775","article-title":"Antitrypanosomal effect of methanolic extract of Zingiber officinale (ginger) on Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected Wistar mice","volume":"7","author":"Kobo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2014.12.007","article-title":"Triclosan and triclosan-loaded liposomal nanoparticles in the treatment of acute experimental toxoplasmosis","volume":"149","author":"Mossallam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"431","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection can induce retinal DNA damage: An experimental study","volume":"7","author":"Aly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Drury, R.A.B., Roger, A.B., and Wallington, E.A. (1980). Carleton\u2019s Histological technique, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"353","article-title":"A study on the effect of Zingiber officinale hydroalcoholic extract on plasmodium berghei in infected mice: An experimental study","volume":"18","author":"Elmi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Rafsanjan Univ. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060517700320","article-title":"First description of enhanced expression of glia maturation factor-beta in experimental toxoplasmic encephalitis","volume":"45","author":"Dincel","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1177\/0394632016638668","article-title":"Role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection","volume":"29","author":"Dincel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galv\u00e1n-Ram\u00edrez, M.D., Salas-Lais, A.G., Due\u00f1as-Jim\u00e9nez, S.H., Mendizabal-Ruiz, G., Franco Topete, R., Berumen-Sol\u00eds, S.C., Rodr\u00edguez P\u00e9rez, L.R., and Franco Topete, K. (2019). Kinematic locomotion changes in C57BL\/6 mice infected with Toxoplasma strain ME49. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7110573"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70710-8","article-title":"Infection-induced inflammation and cerebral injury in preterm infants","volume":"14","author":"Strunk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2683","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.4.2683","article-title":"Astrocyte gp130 expression is critical for the control of Toxoplasma encephalitis","volume":"181","author":"Helmuth","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussein, U.K., Hassan, N.E.-H.Y., Elhalwagy, M.E.A., Zaki, A.R., Abubakr, H.O., Nagulapalli Venkata, K.C., Jang, K.Y., and Bishayee, A. (2017). Ginger and propolis exert neuroprotective effects against monosodium glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in rats. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22111928"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aanat.2014.01.003","article-title":"Neuroprotective effect of ginger in the brain of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats","volume":"196","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Anat."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2010.09.004","article-title":"Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in ginger (Zingiber officinale)","volume":"82","author":"Tao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00225","article-title":"Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitors reduce Toxoplasma gondii infection and upregulate the pro-inflammatory immune response in Calomys callosus rodents and human monocyte cell line","volume":"10","author":"Pereira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2013.03.006","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite-infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells are enriched in mouse lungs and liver","volume":"134","author":"Unno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2018.00189","article-title":"Hepatic metabolomics investigation in acute and chronic murine toxoplasmosis","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Escobar, M., Calero-Bernal, R., Regidor-Cerrillo, J., Vallejo, R., Benavides, J., Collantes-Fern\u00e1ndez, E., and Ortega-Mora, L.M. (2020). Isolation, genotyping, and mouse virulence characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from free ranging iberian pigs. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.604782"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pastorello, R.G., Costa, A.d.C.L., Sawamura, M.V.Y., Nicodemo, A.C., and Duarte-Neto, A.N. (2018). Disseminated toxoplasmosis in a patient with advanced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Autops. Case Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.4322\/acr.2018.012"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1","article-title":"Fatal disseminated toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent cat","volume":"84","author":"Nagel","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. South Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e62","DOI":"10.1086\/511871","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii pneumonia in immunocompetent subjects: Case report and review","volume":"44","author":"Leal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"9710182","article-title":"Pulmonary toxoplasmosis diagnosed on transbronchial lung biopsy in a mechanically ventilated patient","volume":"2020","author":"Garg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Rep. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1136\/jclinpath-2015-203385","article-title":"Pulmonary toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients with interstitial pneumonia: A single-centre prospective study assessing PCR-based diagnosis","volume":"69","author":"Desoubeaux","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.1007\/s00580-018-2764-8","article-title":"A model of pulmonary toxoplasmosis in rats as potential impact on immune deficient diseases","volume":"27","author":"Hassanain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comp. Clin. Path."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yocum, G.T., Hwang, J.J., Mikami, M., Danielsson, J., Kuforiji, A.S., and Emala, C.W. (2022). Ginger and its bioactive component 6-shogaol mitigate lung inflammation in a murine asthma model. Am. J. Physiol.-Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol., 296\u2013303.","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00249.2019"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2012-0231OC","article-title":"Effects of ginger and its constituents on airway smooth muscle relaxation and calcium regulation","volume":"48","author":"Townsend","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"892","article-title":"Ginger (Zingiber officinale) prevents severe damage to the lungs due to hyperoxia and inflammation","volume":"48","author":"Tayman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Turkish J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2121","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.06295-11","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species-triggered trophoblast apoptosis is initiated by endoplasmic reticulum stress via activation of caspase-12, CHOP, and the JNK pathway in Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice","volume":"80","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.2007.00956.x","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection induces apoptosis in noninfected macrophages: Role of nitric oxide and other soluble factors","volume":"29","author":"Nishikawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/neup.12263","article-title":"Increased expressions of ADAMTS-13 and apoptosis contribute to neuropathology during Toxoplasma gondii encephalitis in mice","volume":"36","author":"Dincel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropathology"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"131","article-title":"Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale R.) on metiram-inhibited spermatogenesis and induced apoptosis in albino mice","volume":"1","author":"Sakr","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.10.027","article-title":"Ginger extract attenuates labetalol induced apoptosis, DNA damage, histological and ultrastructural changes in the heart of rat fetuses","volume":"28","author":"Gobara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharif, M.F., and Bennett, M.T. (2016). The effect of different methods and solvents on the extraction of polyphenols in ginger (Zingiber officinale. J. Teknol., 78.","DOI":"10.11113\/jt.v78.9943"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkf251","article-title":"Efficacy of atovaquone combined with clindamycin against murine infection with a cystogenic (Me49) strain of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"50","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"185","article-title":"The efficacy of three medicinal plants; garlic, ginger and mirazid and a chemical drug metronidazole against Cryptosporidium parvum: Ii-histological changes","volume":"46","author":"Hamada","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1136\/jcp.9.1.74","article-title":"The value of formol-ether concentration of faecal cysts and ova","volume":"9","author":"Ridley","year":"1956","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03548684","article-title":"Staining of cryptosporidia by a modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique","volume":"22","author":"Henriksen","year":"1981","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.4103\/2229-5070.97234","article-title":"Evaluation of Ziehl-Neelsen staining, auramine phenol staining, antigen detection enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction, for the diagnosis of intestinal cryptosporidiosis","volume":"2","author":"Khurana","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-017-0973-8","article-title":"Assessment of spiramycin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles treatment on acute and chronic toxoplasmosis in mice","volume":"42","author":"Etewa","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2004.09.015","article-title":"Effectiveness of spiramycin in murine models of acute and chronic toxoplasmosis","volume":"25","author":"Klun","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.21608\/jesp.2020.113050","article-title":"Efficacy of azithromycin on experimental toxoplasmosis infected mice","volume":"50","author":"Nasr","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/7\/798\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:50:56Z","timestamp":1760140256000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/11\/7\/798"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens11070798"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens11070798","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]}}}