{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T04:06:58Z","timestamp":1790136418754,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]],"date-time":"2022-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667865600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001584","name":"Department for Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["17F206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17F206"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001584","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001584","name":"Department for Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018210"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001584","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Teagasc Walsh Scholarship Scheme","award":["17F206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17F206"]}]},{"name":"Teagasc Walsh Scholarship Scheme","award":["2018210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018210"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite an increased incidence of Clostridioides difficile infections, data on the reservoirs and dissemination routes of this bacterium are limited. This study examined the prevalence and characteristics of C. difficile isolates in spinach fields. C. difficile was detected in 2\/60 (3.3%) of spinach and 6\/60 (10%) of soil samples using culture-based techniques. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis identified the spinach isolates as belonging to the hypervirulent clade 5, sequence type (ST) 11, ribotypes (RT) 078 and 126 and carried the genes encoding toxins A, B and CDT. The soil isolates belonged to clade 1 with different toxigenic ST\/RT (ST19\/RT614, ST12\/RT003, ST46\/RT087, ST16\/RT050, ST49\/RT014\/0) strains and one non-toxigenic ST79\/RT511 strain. Antimicrobial resistance to erythromycin (one spinach isolate), rifampicin (two soil isolates), clindamycin (one soil isolate), both moxifloxacin and rifampicin (one soil isolate), and multi-drug resistance to erythromycin, vancomycin and rifampicin (two soil isolates) were observed using the E test, although a broader range of resistance genes were detected using WGS. Although the sample size was limited, our results demonstrate the presence of C. difficile in horticulture and provide further evidence that there are multiple sources and dissemination routes for these bacteria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11111310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]],"date-time":"2022-11-08T10:49:51Z","timestamp":1667904591000},"page":"1310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Detection and Genomic Characterisation of Clostridioides difficile from Spinach Fields"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5641-9498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pilar","family":"Marcos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, D15 DY05 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Whyte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3722-5935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine","family":"Burgess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, D15 DY05 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4546-0599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Ekhlas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, D15 DY05 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9037-1432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Declan","family":"Bolton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, D15 DY05 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.111449","article-title":"Is Clostridium difficile infection still a problem for hospitals?","volume":"184","author":"Enoch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. 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