{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:23:08Z","timestamp":1790947388773,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,21]],"date-time":"2022-12-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universiti Malaya","award":["IIRG019A-2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IIRG019A-2019"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Melioidosis, also known as Whitmore\u2019s disease, is a potentially fatal infection caused by the Gram-negative bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei with a mortality rate of 10\u201350%. The condition is a \u201cglanders-like\u201d illness prevalent in Southeast Asian and Northern Australian regions and can affect humans, animals, and sometimes plants. Melioidosis received the epithet \u201cthe great mimicker\u201d owing to its vast spectrum of non-specific clinical manifestations, such as localised abscesses, septicaemia, pneumonia, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and encephalomyelitis, which often lead to misdiagnosis and ineffective treatment. To date, antibiotics remain the backbone of melioidosis treatment, which includes intravenous therapy with ceftazidime or meropenem, followed by oral therapy with TMP-SMX or amoxicillin\/clavulanic acid and supported by adjunctive treatment. However, bacteria have developed resistance to a series of antibiotics, including clinically significant ones, during treatment. Therefore, phage therapy has gained unprecedented interest and has been proposed as an alternative treatment. Although no effective phage therapy has been published, the findings of experimental phage therapies suggest that the concept could be feasible. This article reviews the benefits and limitations of antibiotics and phage therapy in terms of established regimens, bacterial resistance, host specificity, and biofilm degradation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12010011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,22]],"date-time":"2022-12-22T01:33:12Z","timestamp":1671672792000},"page":"11","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Effective Therapeutic Options for Melioidosis: Antibiotics versus Phage Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Yue-Min","family":"Lim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3336-4129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jamuna","family":"Vadivelu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2351-1597","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vanitha","family":"Mariappan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Toxicology and Health Risk Studies (CORE), Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50300, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7917-8586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gopinath","family":"Venkatraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universiti Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha Institute of Medical & Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai 600 077, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kumutha Malar","family":"Vellasamy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"262","article-title":"A Hitherto Undescribed Infective Disease in Rangoon","volume":"47","author":"Whitmore","year":"1912","journal-title":"Ind. Med. Gaz."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)04724-9","article-title":"Melioidosis, A disease of rodents communicable to man","volume":"205","author":"Stanton","year":"1925","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1385","article-title":"Melioidosis: Insights into the pathogenicity of Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"4","author":"Wiersinga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2022, December 08). Security Plan Guidance: Section 11(f)\u2014Tier 1 Security, Available online: https:\/\/www.selectagents.gov\/compliance\/guidance\/security-plan\/section11f.htm."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30303-2","article-title":"Reducing the melioidosis burden: Public health, chronic disease prevention, or improved case management?","volume":"19","author":"Gibney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.2.923-924.2005","article-title":"Detection of Burkholderia pseudomallei in soil within the Lao People\u2019s Democratic Republic","volume":"43","author":"Wuthiekanun","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.18.2.383-416.2005","article-title":"Melioidosis: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Management","volume":"18","author":"Cheng","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15008","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2015.8","article-title":"Predicted global distribution of Burkholderia pseudomallei and burden of melioidosis","volume":"1","author":"Limmathurotsakul","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"249","article-title":"Melioidosis, the great mimicker: A report of 10 cases from Malaysia","volume":"91","author":"Yee","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.12.116","article-title":"Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Burkholderia pseudomallei: Implications for treatment of melioidosis","volume":"7","author":"Schweizer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Futur. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10652","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28843-7","article-title":"Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of PenA beta-lactamase in acquired Burkholderia pseudomallei beta-lactam resistance","volume":"8","author":"Chirakul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimdahl, R.L. (2015). Chapter 9\u2014Antibiotics, in Six Chemicals That Changed Agriculture, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-800561-3.00009-2"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"226","article-title":"On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to their Use in the Isolation of B. influenzae","volume":"10","author":"Fleming","year":"1929","journal-title":"Br. J. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villa, T.G., and Crespo, P.V. (2010). Enzybiotics: Antibiotic Enzymes as Drugs and Therapeutics, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470570548"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1080\/14712598.2019.1677602","article-title":"Emerging role of biologics for the treatment of melioidosis and glanders","volume":"19","author":"Tapia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1586\/eri.10.4","article-title":"Present and future therapeutic strategies for melioidosis and glanders","volume":"8","author":"Estes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.4.3.445","article-title":"Management of melioidosis","volume":"4","author":"Wuthiekanun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1812.120638","article-title":"Workshop on treatment of and postexposure prophylaxis for Burkholderia pseudomallei and B. mallei Infection, 2010","volume":"18","author":"Lipsitz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2014.01.005","article-title":"Treatment and prophylaxis of melioidosis","volume":"43","author":"Dance","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.5.1763-1765.2004","article-title":"Outcomes of Patients with Melioidosis Treated with Meropenem","volume":"48","author":"Cheng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Currie, B.J., and Anstey, N.M. (2022, May 06). Melioidosis: Treatment and Prevention. Available online: https:\/\/www.uptodate.com\/contents\/melioidosis-treatment-and-prevention.html."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pitman, M., Luck, T., Marshall, C.S., Anstey, N.M., Ward, L., and Currie, B.J. (2015). Intravenous Therapy Duration and Outcomes in Melioidosis: A New Treatment Paradigm. PLOS Neglected Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003586"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sullivan, R.P., Marshall, C.S., Anstey, N.M., Ward, L., and Currie, B.J. (2020). 2020 Review and revision of the 2015 Darwin melioidosis treatment guideline; Paradigm drift not shift. PLOS Neglected Trop. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008659"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Punyagupta, S., Sirisanthana, T., and Stapatayavong, B. (1989). Review of 686 cases and presentation of a new clinical classification. Melioidosis, Bangkok Medical Publisher."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/153.1.167","article-title":"In vitro susceptibility of strains of Pseudomonas pseudomallei isolated in Thailand and Hong Kong to some newer beta-lactam antibiotics and quinolone derivatives","volume":"153","author":"Chau","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1164\/arrd.1983.127.5.650","article-title":"Successful Treatment of Melioidosis Caused by a Multiresistant Strain in an Immunocompromised Host with Third Generation Cephalosporins","volume":"127","author":"So","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(89)90768-X","article-title":"Halving of mortality of severe melioidosis by ceftazidime","volume":"334","author":"White","year":"1989","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/37.3.611","article-title":"In-vitro activity of carbapenem antibiotics against beta-lactam susceptible and resistant strains of Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"37","author":"Smith","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1086\/315306","article-title":"Differential Antibiotic-Induced Endotoxin Release in Severe Melioidosis","volume":"181","author":"Simpson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.39.10.2356","article-title":"Postantibiotic effects and Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) pseudomallei: Evaluation of current treatment","volume":"39","author":"Walsh","year":"1995","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"4","article-title":"Melioidosis: The 2014 Revised RDH Guideline","volume":"21","author":"Currie","year":"2014","journal-title":"North. Territ. Dis. Control. Bull."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02239-13","article-title":"Recurrent Melioidosis in the Darwin Prospective Melioidosis Study: Improving Therapies Mean that Relapse Cases Are Now Rare","volume":"52","author":"Sarovich","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1002\/tre.753","article-title":"Locum Melioidosis: The Vietnamese time bomb","volume":"11","author":"Brightman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Urol. Men\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.3390\/ph3051296","article-title":"The Treatment of Melioidosis","volume":"3","author":"Inglis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/168.5.1181","article-title":"Relapse in melioidosis: Incidence and risk factors","volume":"168","author":"Chaowagul","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.78.208","article-title":"Consensus Guidelines for Dosing of Amoxicillin-Clavulanate in Melioidosis","volume":"78","author":"Cheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1086\/507632","article-title":"Risk Factors for Recurrent Melioidosis in Northeast Thailand","volume":"43","author":"Limmathurotsakul","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2011.00170","article-title":"Strategies for Intracellular Survival of Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"2","author":"Allwood","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.2014.87","article-title":"Autophagy and Burkholderia","volume":"93","author":"Devenish","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000362","article-title":"Innate immune response to Burkholderia mallei","volume":"30","author":"Saikh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(95)90104-3","article-title":"A prospective comparison of co-amoxiclav and the combination of chloramphenicol, doxycycline, and co-trimoxazole for the oral maintenance treatment of melioidosis","volume":"89","author":"Rajchanuvong","year":"1995","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/24.3.311","article-title":"Interactions in vitro between agents used to treat melioidosis","volume":"24","author":"Dance","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/S0255-0857(21)01773-4","article-title":"In vitro interactions between cotrimoxazole and doxycycline in Burkholderia pseudomallei: How important is this combination in maintenance therapy of melioidosis?","volume":"27","author":"Saraya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/24.3.295","article-title":"The antimicrobial susceptibility of Pseudomonas pseudomallei. Emergence of resistance in vitro and during treatment","volume":"24","author":"Dance","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1086\/520218","article-title":"A Comparison of Chloramphenicol, Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole, and Doxycycline with Doxycycline Alone as Maintenance Therapy for Melioidosis","volume":"29","author":"Chaowagul","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.10.4020-4025.2005","article-title":"Open-Label Randomized Trial of Oral Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole, Doxycycline, and Chloramphenicol Compared with Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole and Doxycycline for Maintenance Therapy of Melioidosis","volume":"49","author":"Chaowagul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61951-0","article-title":"Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole plus doxycycline as oral eradicative treatment for melioidosis (MERTH): A multicentre, double-blind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial","volume":"383","author":"Chetchotisakd","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.12-0136","article-title":"Outcomes of Patients with Melioidosis Treated with Cotrimoxazole Alone for Eradication Therapy","volume":"87","author":"Chusri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"266","article-title":"Melioidosis in Malaysia","volume":"64","author":"Puthucheary","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. J. Malaysia"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1086\/444456","article-title":"Two Randomized Controlled Trials of Ceftazidime Alone versus Ceftazidime in Combination with Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole for the Treatment of Severe Melioidosis","volume":"41","author":"Chierakul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"117","article-title":"Acute respiratory failure in melioidosis","volume":"42","author":"Puthucheary","year":"2001","journal-title":"Singap. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1lvarez-Molina, A., de Toro, M., Alexa, E.A., and \u00c1lvarez-Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, A. (2021). Applying Genomics to Track Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Chain, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-100596-5.22700-5"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2022, July 15). Biggest Threats and Data: 2019 AR Threats Report, Available online: http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/drugresistance\/threat-report-2013."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-014-0480-6","article-title":"Antibiotic stewardship in the intensive care unit","volume":"18","author":"Luyt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.4161\/gmic.28027","article-title":"Off-label abuse of antibiotics by bacteria","volume":"5","author":"Viswanathan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.35.8.1635","article-title":"Pseudomonas pseudomallei resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics due to alterations in the chromosomally encoded beta-lactamase","volume":"35","author":"Godfrey","year":"1991","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(00)00334-4","article-title":"Antibiotic susceptibility of Burkholderia pseudomallei from tropical northern Australia and implications for therapy of melioidosis","volume":"17","author":"Jenney","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01357-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01357-17","article-title":"Mechanisms of Resistance to Folate Pathway Inhibitors in Burkholderia pseudomallei: Deviation from the Norm","volume":"8","author":"Podnecky","year":"2017","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy069","article-title":"Raising the Stakes: Loss of Efflux Pump Regulation Decreases Meropenem Susceptibility in Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"67","author":"Sarovich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S35529","article-title":"Development of ceftazidime resistance in an acute Burkholderia pseudomallei infection","volume":"5","author":"Sarovich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(88)91810-7","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas pseudomallei","volume":"331","author":"Dance","year":"1988","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/28.2.321","article-title":"Development of resistance to ceftazidime and co-amoxiclav in Pseudomonas pseudomallei","volume":"28","author":"Dance","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/33.1.145","article-title":"Susceptibility of Pseudomonas pseudomallei to some newer beta-lactam antibiotics and antibiotic combinations using time-kill studies","volume":"33","author":"Smith","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5388","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.05517-11","article-title":"Survey of Antimicrobial Resistance in Clinical Burkholderia pseudomallei Isolates over Two Decades in Northeast Thailand","volume":"55","author":"Wuthiekanun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2013.07.001","article-title":"In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of clinical and environmental strains of Burkholderia pseudomallei from Brazil","volume":"42","author":"Bandeira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"856","article-title":"Comparison between the antimicrobial susceptibility of Burkholderia pseudomallei to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole by standard disk diffusion method and by minimal inhibitory concentration determination","volume":"83","author":"Lumbiganon","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Med. Assoc. Thail."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(02)00016-X","article-title":"A comparison of antibiotic susceptibility testing methods for cotrimoxazole with Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"19","author":"Piliouras","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dki151","article-title":"Trimethoprim\/sulfamethoxazole resistance in clinical isolates of Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"55","author":"Wuthiekanun","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Walsh, C., and Wright, G.D. (2005). Antibiotic Resistance, American Society for Microbiology Press."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14240","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0403302101","article-title":"Genomic plasticity of the causative agent of melioidosis, Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"101","author":"Holden","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.4.1132-1135.2002","article-title":"Cloning and expression of class A beta-lactamase gene blaA(BPS) in Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"46","author":"Cheung","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/20.3.313","article-title":"beta-Lactamase of Pseudomonas pseudomallei and its contribution to antibiotic resistance","volume":"20","author":"Livemore","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkf208","article-title":"Characterization of a laboratory-generated variant of BPS beta-lactamase from Burkholderia pseudomallei that hydrolyses ceftazidime","volume":"50","author":"Ho","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.7.2082-2087.2003","article-title":"Burkholderia pseudomallei class a beta-lactamase mutations that confer selective resistance against ceftazidime or clavulanic acid inhibition","volume":"47","author":"Tribuddharat","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000358","article-title":"Burkholderia pseudomallei resistance to antibiotics in biofilm-induced conditions is related to efflux pumps","volume":"65","author":"Sirijant","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0809.020063","article-title":"Biofilms: Microbial Life on Surfaces","volume":"8","author":"Donlan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1126\/science.284.5418.1318","article-title":"Bacterial Biofilms: A Common Cause of Persistent Infections","volume":"284","author":"Costerton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)05321-1","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms","volume":"358","author":"Stewart","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.02.001","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial tolerance and resistance in bacterial and fungal biofilms","volume":"22","author":"Coenye","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.4248\/IJOS11022","article-title":"The role of bacterial biofilm in persistent infections and control strategies","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01338","article-title":"The In vitro Antibiotic Tolerant Persister Population in Burkholderia pseudomallei is Altered by Environmental Factors","volume":"6","author":"Nierman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.36.6.1208","article-title":"Dynamic interactions of biofilms of mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa with tobramycin and piperacillin","volume":"36","author":"Anwar","year":"1992","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/44.1.43","article-title":"Antibiotic susceptibility assay for Staphylococcus aureus in biofilms developed in vitro","volume":"44","author":"Amorena","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.3390\/ph8030525","article-title":"Ecology of Anti-Biofilm Agents I: Antibiotics versus Bacteriophages","volume":"8","author":"Abedon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.12.76","article-title":"Biofilm-specific antibiotic resistance","volume":"7","author":"Mah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Futur. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Maloy, S., and Hughes, K. (2013). Bacteriophage. Brenner\u2019s Encyclopedia of Genetics, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.97","article-title":"Viral infection: The sting is in the phage\u2019s tail","volume":"14","author":"Hofer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orzechowska, B., and Mohammed, M. (2019). The War between Bacteria and Bacteriophages. Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.87247"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-020-0478-4","article-title":"Phage therapy as a potential solution in the fight against AMR: Obstacles and possible futures","volume":"6","author":"Brives","year":"2020","journal-title":"Palgrave Commun."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1177\/0967010697028002006","article-title":"The Peace-Maintenance Response","volume":"28","author":"Chopra","year":"1997","journal-title":"Secur. Dialog"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Chanishvili, N. (2012). A Literature Review of the Practical Application of Bacteriophage Research, Nova Biomedical Books."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28115","DOI":"10.1038\/srep28115","article-title":"A proposed integrated approach for the preclinical evaluation of phage therapy in Pseudomonas infections","volume":"6","author":"Vandenheuvel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-010-0313-5","article-title":"The phage therapy paradigm: Pret-a-porter or sur-mesure?","volume":"28","author":"Pirnay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01056","article-title":"Phage Therapy in Poland\u2014A Centennial Journey to the First Ethically Approved Treatment Facility in Europe","volume":"11","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-43044-9.00101-1","article-title":"Phage Therapy: Bacteriophages as natural, self-limiting antibiotics","volume":"112","author":"Kutter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Textb. Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02573-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02573-17","article-title":"Design of a Broad-Range Bacteriophage Cocktail That Reduces Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms and Treats Acute Infections in Two Animal Models","volume":"62","author":"Forti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00954-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00954-17","article-title":"Development and Use of Personalized Bacteriophage-Based Therapeutic Cocktails To Treat a Patient with a Disseminated Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Infection","volume":"61","author":"Schooley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-019-0634-z","article-title":"Safety of bacteriophage therapy in severe Staphylococcus aureus infection","volume":"5","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Withatanung, P., Chantratita, N., Muangsombut, V., Saiprom, N., Lertmemongkolchai, G., Klumpp, J., Clokie, M.R.J., Galyov, E.E., and Korbsrisate, S. (2016). Analyses of the Distribution Patterns of Burkholderia pseudomallei and Associated Phages in Soil Samples in Thailand Suggest That Phage Presence Reduces the Frequency of Bacterial Isolation. PLOS Neglected Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005005"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9642","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-27716-3","article-title":"Temperature-dependent virus lifecycle choices may reveal and predict facets of the biology of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria","volume":"8","author":"Egilmez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-8-366","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of a novel podovirus which infects Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"8","author":"Gatedee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00599","article-title":"Temperature dependent bacteriophages of a tropical bacterial pathogen","volume":"5","author":"Shan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2010.02150.x","article-title":"Novel lytic bacteriophages from soil that lyse Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"314","author":"Yordpratum","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kvitko, B.H., Cox, C.R., DeShazer, D., Johnson, S.L., Voorhees, K.J., and Schweizer, H.P. (2012). \u03c6X216, a P2-like bacteriophage with broad Burkholderia pseudomallei and B. malleistrain infectivity. BMC Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-12-289"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guang-Han, O., Leang-Chung, C., Vellasamy, K.M., Mariappan, V., Li-Yen, C., and Vadivelu, J. (2016). Experimental Phage Therapy for Burkholderia pseudomallei Infection. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0158213"},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"21","article-title":"Effect of bacteriophage 365A against ceftazidime resistant Burkholderia pseudomallei in planktonic and biofilm conditions","volume":"33","author":"Nittayasut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Srinagarind Med. J."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-022-01012-9","article-title":"A novel lytic phage potentially effective for phage therapy against Burkholderia pseudomallei in the tropics","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18612","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75637-x","article-title":"Contribution of Podoviridae and Myoviridae bacteriophages to the effectiveness of anti-staphylococcal therapeutic cocktails","volume":"10","author":"Kornienko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1344","article-title":"Lytic capability of bacteriophages (family myoviridae) on Burkholderia pseudomallei","volume":"45","author":"Kulsuwan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5114","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.182.18.5114-5120.2000","article-title":"Bacteriophage phiYeO3-12, specific for Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:3, is related to coliphages T3 and T7","volume":"182","author":"Pajunen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2009.04231.x","article-title":"Host range and lytic capability of four bacteriophages against bovine and clinical human isolates of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7","volume":"107","author":"Niu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlson, K. (2005). Working with Bacteriophages: Common Techniques and Methodological Approaches, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203491751.ax1"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-164-6_18","article-title":"Practical methods for determining phage growth parameters","volume":"501","author":"Hyman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2021.198489","article-title":"Characterization of two newly isolated bacteriophages PW2 and PW4 and derived endolysins with lysis activity against Bacillus cereus group strains","volume":"302","author":"Wan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comeau, A.M., T\u00e9tart, F., Trojet, S.N., Prere, M.F., and Krisch, H.M. (2007). Phage-Antibiotic Synergy (PAS): Beta-lactam and quinolone antibiotics stimulate virulent phage growth. PLoS ONE, 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000799"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13374-0","article-title":"Melioidosis","volume":"361","author":"White","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1086\/320878","article-title":"Randomized, double-blind, controlled study of cefoperazone-sulbactam plus cotrimoxazole versus ceftazidime plus cotrimoxazole for the treatment of severe melioidosis","volume":"33","author":"Chetchotisakd","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dutta, S., Haq, S., Hasan, M.R., and Haq, J.A. (2017). Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of clinical isolates of Burkholderia pseudomallei in Bangladesh. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2626-5"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132971","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/132971","article-title":"Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Genetic Characterisation of Burkholderia pseudomallei Isolated from Malaysian Patients","volume":"2014","author":"Khosravi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.47102\/annals-acadmedsg.V39N12p945","article-title":"Development of ceftazidime resistance in Burkhoderia pseudomallei in a patient experiencing melioidosis with mediastinal lymphadenitis","volume":"39","author":"Kung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Acad. Med. Singap."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarovich, D.S., Price, E.P., Von Schulze, A.T., Cook, J.M., Mayo, M., Watson, L.M., Richardson, L., Seymour, M.L., Tuanyok, A., and Engelthaler, D.M. (2012). Characterization of Ceftazidime Resistance Mechanisms in Clinical Isolates of Burkholderia pseudomallei from Australia. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030789"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.4161\/bact.1.2.14590","article-title":"Pros and cons of phage therapy","volume":"1","author":"Abedon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bacteriophage"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3096","article-title":"Revenge of the phages: Defeating bacterial defences","volume":"11","author":"Samson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasan, M., and Ahn, J. (2022). Evolutionary Dynamics between Phages and Bacteria as a Possible Approach for Designing Effective Phage Therapies against Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11070915"},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2022, December 08). 2021 AWaRe Classification, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/2021-aware-classification."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fnx142","DOI":"10.1093\/femsle\/fnx142","article-title":"Optimization of therapy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with ceftazidime and meropenem using chemostats as model for infections","volume":"364","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_127","first-page":"35","article-title":"The use of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) in dermatology","volume":"55","author":"Lechowicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Folia Med. Crac."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg286","article-title":"A review of the antimicrobial activity of clavulanate","volume":"52","author":"Finlay","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2019.01.019","article-title":"Oral eradication therapy for melioidosis: Important but not without risks","volume":"80","author":"Sullivan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3862","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01974-14","article-title":"Cross-Species Comparison of the Burkholderia pseudomallei, Burkholderia thailandensis, and Burkholderia mallei Quorum-Sensing Regulons","volume":"196","author":"Majerczyk","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14246","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0403306101","article-title":"Structural flexibility in the Burkholderia mallei genome","volume":"101","author":"Nierman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Y., Kim, H.S., Chua, H.H., Lin, C.H., Sim, S.H., Lin, D., Derr, A., Engels, R., DeShazer, D., and Birren, B. (2006). Genomic patterns of pathogen evolution revealed by comparison of Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, to avirulent Burkholderia thailandensis. BMC Microbiol., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-6-46"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.4292\/wjgpt.v8.i3.162","article-title":"Phage therapy: An alternative to antibiotics in the age of multi-drug resistance","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2011.12.010","article-title":"Diffusion and activity of antibiotics against Burkholderia pseudomallei biofilms","volume":"39","author":"Pibalpakdee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawasdidoln, C., Taweechaisupapong, S., Sermswan, R.W., Tattawasart, U., Tungpradabkul, S., and Wongratanacheewin, S. (2010). Growing Burkholderia pseudomallei in Biofilm Stimulating Conditions Significantly Induces Antimicrobial Resistance. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0009196"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.37.9.2000","article-title":"Resistance of Pseudomonas pseudomallei growing as a biofilm on silastic discs to ceftazidime and co-trimoxazole","volume":"37","author":"Vorachit","year":"1993","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"O854","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12614","article-title":"Role of Burkholderia pseudomallei biofilm formation and lipopolysaccharide in relapse of melioidosis","volume":"20","author":"Limmathurotsakul","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1097(04)00041-2","article-title":"The interaction of phage and biofilms","volume":"232","author":"Sutherland","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"Prasertsincharoen, N. (2015). Studies in the Ecology and Biocontrol of Burkholderia pseudomallei, James Cook University."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/1\/11\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:47:08Z","timestamp":1760147228000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/1\/11"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,21]]},"references-count":139,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12010011"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12010011","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,21]]}}}