{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T22:42:15Z","timestamp":1783723335008,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675814400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003009","name":"Science, Technology &amp; Innovation Funding Authority (STDF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["44450"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["44450"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>CD39 is a marker of immune cells such as lymphocytes and monocytes. The CD39\/CD73 pathway hydrolyzes ATP into adenosine, which has a potent immunosuppressive effect. CD39 regulates the function of a variety of immunologic cells through the purinergic signaling pathways. CD39+ T cells have been implicated in viral infections, including Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), viral hepatitis, and Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections. The expression of CD39 is an indicator of lymphocyte exhaustion, which develops during chronicity. During RNA viral infections, the CD39 marker can profile the populations of CD4+ T lymphocytes into two populations, T-effector lymphocytes, and T-regulatory lymphocytes, where CD39 is predominantly expressed on the T-regulatory cells. The level of CD39 in T lymphocytes can predict the disease progression, antiviral immune responses, and the response to antiviral drugs. Besides, the percentage of CD39 and CD73 in B lymphocytes and monocytes can affect the status of viral infections. In this review, we investigate the impact of CD39 and CD39-expressing cells on viral infections and how the frequency and percentage of CD39+ immunologic cells determine disease prognosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12020279","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T05:37:31Z","timestamp":1675834651000},"page":"279","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["The Role of Cluster of Differentiation 39 (CD39) and Purinergic Signaling Pathway in Viral Infections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8881-3545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alaa","family":"Elsaghir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ehsan M. W.","family":"El-Sabaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5134-1089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulrahman K.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9636-7485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sayed F.","family":"Abdelwahab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8207-6401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim M.","family":"Sayed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1943-8419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed A.","family":"El-Mokhtar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s11302-006-9003-5","article-title":"The E-NTPDase family of ectonucleotidases: Structure function relationships and pathophysiological significance","volume":"2","author":"Robson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Purinergic Signal."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3574","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.153.8.3574","article-title":"The CD39 lymphoid cell activation antigen. Molecular cloning and structural characterization","volume":"153","author":"Maliszewski","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.146.7.2235","article-title":"Expression, distribution, and biochemistry of human CD39. Role in activation-associated homotypic adhesion of lymphocytes","volume":"146","author":"Kansas","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clml.2011.06.005","article-title":"CD39 expression on T lymphocytes correlates with severity of disease in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia","volume":"11","author":"Pulte","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3875","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.12-205658","article-title":"Metabolism of circulating ADP in the bloodstream is mediated via integrated actions of soluble adenylate kinase-1 and NTPDase1\/CD39 activities","volume":"26","author":"Yegutkin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Faseb J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9898","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.271.17.9898","article-title":"CD39 Is an Ecto-(Ca2+, Mg2+)-apyrase (*)","volume":"271","author":"Wang","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2398212818817494","DOI":"10.1177\/2398212818817494","article-title":"Purine and purinergic receptors","volume":"2","author":"Burnstock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Neurosci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6283","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA118.007188","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide suppresses T cells by generating extracellular ATP that impairs their mitochondrial function via P2Y11 receptors","volume":"294","author":"Sueyoshi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2016.06.025","article-title":"Co-inhibition of CD73 and A2AR adenosine signaling improves anti-tumor immune responses","volume":"30","author":"Young","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00508","article-title":"CD73\u2019s potential as an immunotherapy target in gastrointestinal cancers","volume":"11","author":"Harvey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2604","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2019.37.15_suppl.2604","article-title":"AB928, a novel dual adenosine receptor antagonist, combined with chemotherapy or AB122 (anti-PD-1) in patients (pts) with advanced tumors: Preliminary results from ongoing phase I studies","volume":"37","author":"Powderly","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.CIR-18-0056","article-title":"A2AR Antagonism with CPI-444 Induces Antitumor Responses and Augments Efficacy to Anti\u2013PD-(L) 1 and Anti\u2013CTLA-4 in Preclinical ModelsA2AR Antagonism with CPI-444 Stimulates Antitumor Immunity","volume":"6","author":"Willingham","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.110.003285","article-title":"International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXXI. Nomenclature and classification of adenosine receptors\u2014An update","volume":"63","author":"Fredholm","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2010.12.017","article-title":"Recent developments in adenosine receptor ligands and their potential as novel drugs","volume":"1808","author":"Jacobson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.111.226845","article-title":"Regulation of neutrophil function by adenosine","volume":"32","author":"Barletta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb Vasc Biol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3828","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1501139","article-title":"IFN-\u03b3 prevents adenosine receptor (A2bR) upregulation to sustain the macrophage activation response","volume":"195","author":"Cohen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-04-496216","article-title":"TLR stimulation initiates a CD39-based autoregulatory mechanism that limits macrophage inflammatory responses","volume":"122","author":"Cohen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.111.226852","article-title":"Regulation of macrophage function by adenosine","volume":"32","author":"Pacher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb Vasc Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ra55","DOI":"10.1126\/scisignal.2000588","article-title":"Autocrine purinergic receptor signaling is essential for macrophage chemotaxis","volume":"3","author":"Kronlage","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Signal."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6227","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.154.12.6227","article-title":"Antigen recognition by CTL is dependent upon ectoATPase activity","volume":"154","author":"Dombrowski","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, P.K., Godec, J., Wolski, D., Adland, E., Yates, K., Pauken, K.E., Cosgrove, C., Ledderose, C., Junger, W.G., and Robson, S.C. (2015). CD39 Expression Identifies Terminally Exhausted CD8+ T Cells. PLOS Pathog., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005177"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2021.104779","article-title":"Pronounce expression of Tim-3 and CD39 but not PD1 defines CD8 T cells in critical Covid-19 patients","volume":"153","author":"Shahbazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-16-2684","article-title":"CD39 Expression Defines Cell Exhaustion in Tumor-Infiltrating CD8(+) T Cells","volume":"78","author":"Canale","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-020-02563-2","article-title":"Tumor-infiltrating CD39(+)CD8(+) T cells determine poor prognosis and immune evasion in clear cell renal cell carcinoma patients","volume":"69","author":"Qi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1079490","article-title":"Control of regulatory T cell development by the transcription factor Foxp3","volume":"299","author":"Hori","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.155.3.1151","article-title":"Immunologic self-tolerance maintained by activated T cells expressing IL-2 receptor alpha-chains (CD25). Breakdown of a single mechanism of self-tolerance causes various autoimmune diseases","volume":"155","author":"Sakaguchi","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.4110\/in.2016.16.6.330","article-title":"Regulatory T Cells in Hepatitis B and C Virus Infections","volume":"16","author":"Jung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immune Netw."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dietze, K.K., Schimmer, S., Kretzmer, F., Wang, J., Lin, Y., Huang, X., Wu, W., Wang, B., Lu, M., and Dittmer, U. (2016). Characterization of the Treg response in the hepatitis B virus hydrodynamic injection mouse model. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151717"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, Y., Jiang, L., Zheng, Y., Ni, B., and Wu, Y. (2012). Expression of CD39 on FoxP3+ T regulatory cells correlates with progression of HBV infection. BMC Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2172-13-17"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2410","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-6143.2010.03291.x","article-title":"Expression of CD39 by human peripheral blood CD4+ CD25+ T cells denotes a regulatory memory phenotype","volume":"10","author":"Dwyer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1287","article-title":"Comprehensive Analysis of Frequency and Phenotype of T Regulatory Cells in HIV Infection: CD39 Expression of FoxP3+ T Regulatory Cells Correlates with Progressive Disease","volume":"85","author":"Thomssen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2008.03.004","article-title":"The biological functions of T helper 17 cell effector cytokines in inflammation","volume":"28","author":"Ouyang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.05.037","article-title":"CD39: A new surface marker of mouse regulatory \u03b3\u03b4 T cells","volume":"132","author":"Otsuka","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867167","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.867167","article-title":"Inversed Ratio of CD39\/CD73 Expression on \u03b3\u03b4 T Cells in HIV Versus Healthy Controls Correlates With Immune Activation and Disease Progression","volume":"13","author":"Kolbe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0402-358","article-title":"CD39 is the dominant Langerhans cell\u2013associated ecto-NTPDase: Modulatory roles in inflammation and immune responsiveness","volume":"8","author":"Mizumoto","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33116","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.271.51.33116","article-title":"Identification and characterization of CD39\/vascular ATP diphosphohydrolase","volume":"271","author":"Kaczmarek","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000001266","article-title":"Brief Report: Increased Frequency of CD39+ CD56bright Natural Killer Cells in HIV-1 Infection Correlates With Immune Activation and Disease Progression","volume":"74","author":"Dierks","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687296","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.687296","article-title":"Reversal of the CD8(+) T-Cell Exhaustion Induced by Chronic HIV-1 Infection Through Combined Blockade of the Adenosine and PD-1 Pathways","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenabian, M.-A., Seddiki, N., Yatim, A., Carriere, M., Hulin, A., Younas, M., Ghadimi, E., K\u00f6k, A., Routy, J.-P., and Tremblay, A. (2013). Regulatory T cells negatively affect IL-2 production of effector T cells through CD39\/adenosine pathway in HIV infection. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003319"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.08.021","article-title":"CD8(+)CD28(\u2212)CD127(lo)CD39(+) regulatory T-cell expansion: A new possible pathogenic mechanism for HIV infection?","volume":"141","author":"Fenoglio","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201344102","article-title":"Human antigen-specific CD4\u207a CD25\u207a CD134\u207a CD39\u207a T cells are enriched for regulatory T cells and comprise a substantial proportion of recall responses","volume":"44","author":"Seddiki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.5A0816-346R","article-title":"Down-regulation of CD73 on B cells of patients with viremic HIV correlates with B cell activation and disease progression","volume":"101","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Leukoc Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2018.06.023","article-title":"Different core-specific T cell subsets are expanded in chronic hepatitis C with advanced liver disease","volume":"124","author":"Cachem","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12576","article-title":"Hepatitis C-specific effector and regulatory CD 4 T-cell responses are associated with the outcomes of primary infection","volume":"23","author":"Keoshkerian","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886646","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.886646","article-title":"Transcriptional Pattern Analysis of Virus-Specific CD8+ T Cells in Hepatitis C Infection: Increased Expression of TOX and Eomesodermin During and After Persistent Antigen Recognition","volume":"13","author":"Wildner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12125","article-title":"Suppressive activity and altered conventional phenotype markers\/mediators of regulatory T cells in patients with self-limiting hepatitis E","volume":"21","author":"Rathod","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Viral Hepat."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, J.M., and Han, Z. (2010). Purinergic receptor functionality is necessary for infection of human hepatocytes by hepatitis delta virus and hepatitis B virus. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0015784"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1111\/imcb.12271","article-title":"Memory regulatory T cells home to the lung and control influenza A virus infection","volume":"97","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall, O.J., Limjunyawong, N., Vermillion, M.S., Robinson, D.P., Wohlgemuth, N., Pekosz, A., Mitzner, W., and Klein, S.L. (2016). Progesterone-Based Therapy Protects Against Influenza by Promoting Lung Repair and Recovery in Females. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005840"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3890","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1303343","article-title":"Type I IFNs and IL-18 regulate the antiviral response of primary human \u03b3\u03b4 T cells against dendritic cells infected with Dengue virus","volume":"194","author":"Tsai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2021.155651","article-title":"Phenotypical characterization of regulatory T cells in acute Zika infection","volume":"146","author":"Gois","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012027","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1012027","article-title":"Dysfunctional purinergic signaling correlates with disease severity in COVID-19 patients","volume":"13","author":"Pietrobon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C\u00e9rbulo-V\u00e1zquez, A., Garc\u00eda-Espinosa, M., Briones-Gardu\u00f1o, J.C., Arriaga-Pizano, L., Ferat-Osorio, E., Zavala-Barrios, B., Cabrera-Rivera, G.L., Miranda-Cruz, P., Garc\u00eda de la Rosa, M.T., and Prieto-Ch\u00e1vez, J.L. (2022). The percentage of CD39+ monocytes is higher in pregnant COVID-19+ patients than in nonpregnant COVID-19+ patients. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.06.18.449054"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3394","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.30805","article-title":"Alterations in CD39\/CD73 axis of T cells associated with COVID-19 severity","volume":"237","author":"Dorneles","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847894","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.847894","article-title":"Role of CD39 in COVID-19 Severity: Dysregulation of Purinergic Signaling and Thromboinflammation","volume":"13","author":"Alfaro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Fields, B.N., and Knipe, D.M. (1996). Fields Virology, Lippincott-Raven Publishers. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a006965","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a006965","article-title":"HIV transmission","volume":"2","author":"Shaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12066","article-title":"CD4(+) T-cell depletion in HIV infection: Mechanisms of immunological failure","volume":"254","author":"Okoye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunol Rev."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamcr.2005.10.009","article-title":"HIV infection is associated with increased NTPDase activity that correlates with CD39-positive lymphocytes","volume":"1746","author":"Leal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta (BBA) Mol. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2010.12.004","article-title":"NTPDase activity in human lymphocytes is not affected by therapeutic doses of anti-HIV drugs","volume":"65","author":"Leal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2007.05.012","article-title":"The nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1\/CD39 is incorporated into human immunodeficiency type 1 particles, where it remains biologically active","volume":"371","author":"Barat","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5372","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-12-323162","article-title":"Regulatory T cells control HIV replication in activated T cells through a cAMP-dependent mechanism","volume":"117","author":"Rueda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolova, M., Carriere, M., Jenabian, M.-A., Limou, S., Younas, M., K\u00f6k, A., Hu\u00eb, S., Seddiki, N., Hulin, A., and Delaneau, O. (2011). CD39\/adenosine pathway is involved in AIDS progression. PLoS Pathog., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002110"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103570","article-title":"Dynamics and epigenetic signature of regulatory T-cells following antiretroviral therapy initiation in acute HIV infection","volume":"71","author":"Yero","year":"2021","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02465","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02465","article-title":"Expression of CD39 Is Correlated With HIV DNA Levels in Na\u00efve Tregs in Chronically Infected ART Na\u00efve Patients","volume":"10","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoffmann, M., Pantazis, N., Martin, G.E., Hickling, S., Hurst, J., Meyerowitz, J., Willberg, C.B., Robinson, N., Brown, H., and Fisher, M. (2016). Exhaustion of Activated CD8 T Cells Predicts Disease Progression in Primary HIV-1 Infection. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005661"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2014.12.004","article-title":"Inhibition of ecto-ATPase activities impairs HIV-1 infection of macrophages","volume":"220","author":"Schachter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811091","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.811091","article-title":"Immune Dysfunctions of CD56(neg) NK Cells Are Associated With HIV-1 Disease Progression","volume":"12","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946871","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.946871","article-title":"CD38(+)CD39(+) NK cells associate with HIV disease progression and negatively regulate T cell proliferation","volume":"13","author":"Qian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9505","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1307527110","article-title":"Ultrastructural analysis of hepatitis C virus particles","volume":"110","author":"Catanese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2000-9505","article-title":"Recovery, persistence, and sequelae in hepatitis C virus infection: A perspective on long-term outcome","volume":"20","author":"Alter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Semin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-016-0070-0","article-title":"Cellular immune response to hepatitis-C-virus in subjects without viremia or seroconversion: Is it important?","volume":"11","author":"Abdelwahab","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Agents Cancer"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2016.02.006","article-title":"Dynamic changes in CD45RA(-)Foxp3(high) regulatory T-cells in chronic hepatitis C patients during antiviral therapy","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27990","article-title":"Is hepatitis E virus an emerging problem in industrialized countries?","volume":"62","author":"Sayed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.15.29","article-title":"The emergence of hepatitis E virus in Europe","volume":"10","author":"Sayed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.28759","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus in acute liver failure: An unusual suspect?","volume":"64","author":"Sayed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0706992","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus and chronic hepatitis in organ-transplant recipients","volume":"358","author":"Kamar","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2016.11.016","article-title":"Hepatitis E virus: Infection beyond the liver?","volume":"66","author":"Pischke","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-011-1291-1","article-title":"Peripheral T regulatory cells and cytokines in hepatitis E infection","volume":"31","author":"Tripathy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20062512","article-title":"Adenosine generation catalyzed by CD39 and CD73 expressed on regulatory T cells mediates immune suppression","volume":"204","author":"Deaglio","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humimm.2016.10.001","article-title":"TGF-\u03b2(1) and contact mediated suppression by CD4+CD25+CD127\u2212 T regulatory cells of patients with self-limiting hepatitis E","volume":"77","author":"Rathod","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1007\/s11938-007-0045-8","article-title":"Hepatitis D","volume":"10","author":"Koytak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"2977","article-title":"Hepadnaviruses","volume":"2","author":"Seeger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Fields Virol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a021550","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a021550","article-title":"Hepatitis D virus coinfection and superinfection","volume":"4","author":"Negro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.18.12.997","article-title":"Immunofluorescence detection of new antigen-antibody system (delta\/anti-delta) associated to hepatitis B virus in liver and in serum of HBsAg carriers","volume":"18","author":"Rizzetto","year":"1977","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"re1","DOI":"10.1126\/scisignal.3104re1","article-title":"Basal release of ATP: An autocrine-paracrine mechanism for cell regulation","volume":"3","author":"Corriden","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Signal."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2017.01.002","article-title":"Extracellular ATP and adenosine: The Yin and Yang in immune responses?","volume":"55","author":"Faas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"32","article-title":"Untergruppe \u00abBewertung Blutassoziierter Krankheitserreger\u00bb. Influenza Virus","volume":"36","author":"Arbeitskreis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Hemother."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.319","article-title":"The pathogenesis of influenza in humans","volume":"11","author":"Zambon","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.1857","article-title":"Intracontinental and intercontinental dissemination of Asian H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (clade 2.3.4.4) in the winter of 2014\u20132015","volume":"25","author":"Saito","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1313","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00130.2015","article-title":"Ecto-5\u2019-nucleotidase CD73 modulates the innate immune response to influenza infection but is not required for development of influenza-induced acute lung injury","volume":"309","author":"Aeffner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s11302-012-9309-4","article-title":"Cellular function and molecular structure of ecto-nucleotidases","volume":"8","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Purinergic Signal."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L83","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00149.2017","article-title":"ATP catabolism by tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase contributes to development of ARDS in influenza-infected mice","volume":"314","author":"Woods","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol -Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leyva-Grado, V.H., Ermler, M.E., Schotsaert, M., Gonzalez, M.G., Gillespie, V., Lim, J.K., and Garc\u00eda-Sastre, A. (2017). Contribution of the Purinergic Receptor P2X7 to Development of Lung Immunopathology during Influenza Virus Infection. mBio, 8.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00229-17"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinberg, A., Muresan, P., Richardson, K.M., Fenton, T., Dominguez, T., Bloom, A., Watts, D.H., Abzug, M.J., Nachman, S.A., and Levin, M.J. (2015). Determinants of vaccine immunogenicity in HIV-infected pregnant women: Analysis of B and T cell responses to pandemic H1N1 monovalent vaccine. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122431"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2015.0151","article-title":"Heterogeneity of T Cell Responses to Pandemic pH1N1 Monovalent Vaccine in HIV-Infected Pregnant Women","volume":"31","author":"Weinberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00678.x","article-title":"Understanding the contribution of cellular immunity to dengue disease pathogenesis","volume":"225","author":"Mathew","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.11.3.480","article-title":"Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever","volume":"11","author":"Gubler","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2057","DOI":"10.1590\/0102-311X00070112","article-title":"[A Bayesian model to investigate excess mortality during the dengue epidemic in Greater Metropolitan Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2007\u20132008]","volume":"29","author":"Resende","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cad. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2016.02.003","article-title":"The purinergic receptor P2X7 role in control of Dengue virus-2 infection and cytokine\/chemokine production in infected human monocytes","volume":"221","author":"Lindenberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.12-0474","article-title":"Dengue virus type 2 modulates endothelial barrier function through CD73","volume":"88","author":"Patkar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1002\/med.21786","article-title":"Recent progresses and remaining challenges for the detection of Zika virus","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3470","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.8.3470-3477.2000","article-title":"NP and L proteins of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) are sufficient for efficient transcription and replication of LCMV genomic RNA analogs","volume":"74","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bmb.a072029","article-title":"Virus and immune responses: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus as a prototype model of viral pathogenesis","volume":"41","author":"Oldstone","year":"1985","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2012.02.002","article-title":"Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: An underrecognized cause of neurologic disease in the fetus, child, and adult","volume":"19","author":"Bonthius","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"595707","article-title":"Functionally Competent, PD-1(+) CD8(+) Trm Cells Populate the Brain Following Local Antigen Encounter","volume":"11","author":"Nazerai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2020.102433","article-title":"The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak","volume":"109","author":"Rothan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hatmal, M.m.M., Alshaer, W., Al-Hatamleh, M.A., Hatmal, M., Smadi, O., Taha, M.O., Oweida, A.J., Boer, J.C., Mohamud, R., and Plebanski, M. (2020). Comprehensive structural and molecular comparison of spike proteins of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, and their interactions with ACE2. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9122638"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2019.08.031","article-title":"Coronavirus genomic RNA packaging","volume":"537","author":"Masters","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2451","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp2009575","article-title":"Severe covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Berlin","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0331-4","article-title":"Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: A key role for monocytes and macrophages","volume":"20","author":"Merad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-020-09944-5","article-title":"The natural history, pathobiology, and clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infections","volume":"15","author":"Machhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.058","article-title":"Structure, function, and antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein","volume":"181","author":"Walls","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0688-y","article-title":"Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses","volume":"5","author":"Letko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00426-x","article-title":"CD147-spike protein is a novel route for SARS-CoV-2 infection to host cells","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-020-09976-7","article-title":"CD147 as a target for COVID-19 treatment: Suggested effects of azithromycin and stem cell engagement","volume":"16","author":"Ulrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rev. Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-022-02185-4","article-title":"High levels of extracellular ATP lead to different inflammatory responses in COVID-19 patients according to the severity","volume":"100","author":"Manica","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2022.108697","article-title":"Viral load is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and altered monocyte phenotype in acute severe SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"108","author":"Teixeira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(01)02085-3","article-title":"Cytomegalovirus infection increases the expression and activity of ecto-ATPase (CD39) and ecto-5\u2032 nucleotidase (CD73) on endothelial cells","volume":"491","author":"Bakker","year":"2001","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-6143.2011.03842.x","article-title":"Cytomegalovirus-specific regulatory and effector T cells share TCR clonality--possible relation to repetitive CMV infections","volume":"12","author":"Schwele","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_121","first-page":"38s","article-title":"Morphological and phenotypical changes in EBV positive lymphoblastoid cells infected by HIV-1","volume":"6","author":"Calabro","year":"1992","journal-title":"Leukemia"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3300","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V79.12.3300.bloodjournal79123300","article-title":"Expression of the APO-1 antigen in Burkitt lymphoma cell lines correlates with a shift towards a lymphoblastoid phenotype","volume":"79","author":"Falk","year":"1992","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1801420","article-title":"EBV Latency III-Transformed B Cells Are Inducers of Conventional and Unconventional Regulatory T Cells in a PD-L1-Dependent Manner","volume":"203","author":"Auclair","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30169","article-title":"B cells promote tumor progression in a mouse model of HPV-mediated cervical cancer","volume":"139","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"1242979","article-title":"Cervical Cancer Cells Express Markers Associated with Immunosurveillance","volume":"2019","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1093\/gastro\/goaa048","article-title":"Skewed CD39\/CD73\/adenosine pathway contributes to B-cell hyperactivation and disease progression in patients with chronic hepatitis B","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1159\/000322141","article-title":"Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV)\u2014Revised","volume":"37","author":"Schottstedt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Hemother."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01776","article-title":"Cytomegalovirus-Specific T Cells Restricted by HLA-Cw*0702 Increase Markedly with Age and Dominate the CD8(+) T-Cell Repertoire in Older People","volume":"8","author":"Hosie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soldan, S.S., and Lieberman, P.M. (2022). Epstein\u2013Barr virus and multiple sclerosis. Nat. Rev. Microbiol.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00770-5"},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"151","article-title":"EBV Persistence--Introducing the Virus","volume":"390","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc.2016.92","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus: More than 50 years old and still providing surprises","volume":"16","author":"Young","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.leukres.2005.03.017","article-title":"CD 39-associated high ATPase activity contribute to the loss of P 2 X 7-mediated calcium response in LCL cells","volume":"29","author":"Nie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Leuk. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1175","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1175","article-title":"Partial absence of PD-1 expression by tumor-infiltrating EBV-specific CD8(+) T cells in EBV-driven lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma","volume":"9","author":"Simoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"80","article-title":"Review of HPV-related diseases and cancers","volume":"40","author":"Brianti","year":"2017","journal-title":"New Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2008.11.046","article-title":"Papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers\u2014A brief historical account","volume":"384","year":"2009","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/0046-8177(92)90232-R","article-title":"Human papillomavirus type 16 and 18 gene expression in cervical neoplasias","volume":"23","author":"Stoler","year":"1992","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"4651627","article-title":"HPV-16 Infection Is Associated with a High Content of CD39 and CD73 Ectonucleotidases in Cervical Samples from Patients with CIN-1","volume":"2019","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duurland, C.L., Santegoets, S.J., Abdulrahman, Z., Loof, N.M., Sturm, G., Wesselink, T.H., Arens, R., Boekestijn, S., Ehsan, I., and van Poelgeest, M.I.E. (2022). CD161 expression and regulation defines rapidly responding effector CD4+ T cells associated with improved survival in HPV16-associated tumors. J. Immunother. Cancer, 10.","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2021-003995"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v13.i1.14","article-title":"Hepatitis B virus taxonomy and hepatitis B virus genotypes","volume":"13","author":"Schaefer","year":"2007","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22881","article-title":"Hepatitis B: The virus and disease","volume":"49","author":"Liang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix155","article-title":"Elevated Pre-Antiretroviral Therapy CD39+CD8+ T Cell Frequency Is Associated with Early Mortality in Advanced Human Immunodeficiency Virus\/Tuberculosis Co-infection","volume":"64","author":"Ravimohan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00528","article-title":"Expansion of CD25-Negative Forkhead Box P3-Positive T Cells during HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection","volume":"8","author":"Angerami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/2\/279\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:28:09Z","timestamp":1760120889000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/2\/279"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]]},"references-count":142,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12020279"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12020279","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]]}}}