{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T15:48:21Z","timestamp":1773330501992,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":225,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676419200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aims to review the available data regarding the central role of immunity in combating SARS-CoV-2 infection and in the generation of protection by vaccination against COVID-19 in different age groups. Physiologically, the immune response and the components involved in it are variable, both functionally and quantitatively, in neonates, infants, children, adolescents, and adults. These immunological differences are mirrored during COVID-19 infection and in the post-vaccination period. The outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection is greatly dependent on the reaction orchestrated by the immune system. This is clearly obvious in relation to the clinical status of COVID-19 infection, which can be symptomless, mild, moderate, or severe. Even the complications of the disease show a proportional pattern in relation to the immune response. On the contrary, the commonly used anti-COVID-19 vaccines generate protective humoral and cellular immunity. The magnitude of this immunity and the components involved in it are discussed in detail. Furthermore, many of the adverse effects of these vaccines can be explained on the basis of immune reactions against the different components of the vaccines. Regarding the appropriate choice of vaccine for different age groups, many factors have to be considered. This is a cornerstone, particularly in the following age groups: 1 day to 5 years, 6 to 11 years, and 12 to 17 years. Many factors are involved in deciding the route, doses, and schedule of vaccination for children. Another important issue in this dilemma is the hesitancy of families in making the decision about whether to vaccinate their children. Added to these difficulties is the choice by health authorities and governments concerning whether to make children\u2019s vaccination compulsory. In this respect, although rare and limited, adverse effects of vaccines in children have been detected, some of which, unfortunately, have been serious or even fatal. However, to achieve comprehensive control over COVID-19 in communities, both children and adults have to be vaccinated, as the former group represents a reservoir for viral transmission. The understanding of the various immunological mechanisms involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection and in the preparation and application of its vaccines has given the sciences a great opportunity to further deepen and expand immunological knowledge. This will hopefully be reflected positively on other diseases through gaining an immunological background that may aid in diagnosis and therapy. Humanity is still in continuous conflict with SARS-CoV-2 infection and will be for a while, but the future is expected to be in favor of the prevention and control of this disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12020329","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T02:04:03Z","timestamp":1676513043000},"page":"329","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Role of Immunity in the Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and in the Protection Generated by COVID-19 Vaccines in Different Age Groups"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Zainalabideen A.","family":"Abdulla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sharaf M.","family":"Al-Bashir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8890-4455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiba","family":"Alzoubi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Noor S.","family":"Al-Salih","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ala A.","family":"Aldamen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ahmed Z.","family":"Abdulazeez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internship Program, Princess Basma Teaching Hospital, Irbid 26125, Jordan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1425","article-title":"Warp spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines: Why are children stuck in neutral?","volume":"73","author":"Anderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"McGown, R.J., and Cennimo, D.J. (2022, February 10). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Children. Available online: https:\/\/emedicine.medscape.com\/article\/2500132-overview."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Mayo Clinic Staff (2022, July 07). COVID-19 in Babies and Children. Available online: https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/diseases-conditions\/coronavirus\/in-depth\/coronavirus-in-babies-and-children\/art-20484405."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Peppers, B. (2021, November 21). Why Vaccine Doses Differ for Babies, Kids, Teens and Adults\u2014An Immunologist Explains How Your Immune System Changes as You Mature. The Conversation. Available online: https:\/\/theconversation.com\/why-vaccine-doses-differ-for-babies-kids-teens-and-adults-an-immunologist-explains-how-your-immune-system-changes-as-you-mature-168708."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2000710","article-title":"Neonatal and children\u2019s immune system and COVID-19: Biased immune tolerance versus resistance strategy","volume":"205","author":"Elahi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfma.2020.02.009","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection in children: Transmission dynamics and clinical characteristics","volume":"119","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Formos. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2002032","article-title":"China Medical Treatment Expert Group for Covid-19. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China","volume":"382","author":"Guan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(92)90046-N","article-title":"Understanding chronic nematode infections: Evolutionary considerations, current hypotheses and the way forward","volume":"22","author":"Behnke","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1214935","article-title":"Disease tolerance as a defense strategy","volume":"335","author":"Medzhitov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01759","article-title":"Innate immunity of neonates and infants","volume":"9","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00907-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00907-20","article-title":"Could an unrelated live attenuated vaccine serves as a preventive measure to dampen septic inflammation associated with COVID-19 infection?","volume":"11","author":"Fidel","year":"2020","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12675","article-title":"Immunosuppressive CD71+ erythroid cells compromise neonatal host defence against infection","volume":"504","author":"Elahi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e016219","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.120.016219","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and cardiovascular disease: A viewpoint on the potential influence of angiotensin\u2014Converting enzyme inhibitors\/angiotensin receptor blockers on onset and severity of acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection","volume":"9","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-020-03379-9","article-title":"Challenges in neonatal COVID-19 infection","volume":"87","author":"Bhat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-017-1882-z","article-title":"Recombinant human ACE2: Acing out angiotensin II in ARDS therapy","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.2648","article-title":"Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China","volume":"323","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.4344","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Italy","volume":"323","author":"Livingston","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CDC COVID-19 Response Team (2020). Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Children\u2014United States, 12 February\u20132 April 2020. Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep., 69, 422\u2013426.","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6914e4"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2116298","article-title":"Evaluation of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine in Children 5 to 11 Years of Age","volume":"386","author":"Walter","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0912468","article-title":"Neutrophil and endothelial adhesive function during human fetal ontogeny","volume":"93","author":"Nussbaum","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filias, A., Theodorou, G.L., Mouzopoulou, S., Varvarigou, A.A., Mantagos, S., and Karakantza, M. (2011). Phagocytic ability of neutrophils and monocytes in neonates. BMC Pediatr., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-11-29"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-6451-9_8","article-title":"Longevity of T-cell memory following acute viral infection","volume":"684","author":"Walker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1203\/01.PDR.0000163397.53466.0F","article-title":"Monocyte toll-like receptor 4 expression and LPS-induced cytokine production increase during gestational aging","volume":"58","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.3.1223-1229.2004","article-title":"Role of MyD88 in diminished tumor necrosis factor alpha production by newborn mononuclear cells in response to lipopolysaccharide","volume":"72","author":"Yan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1086\/509892","article-title":"Immaturity of infection control in preterm and term newborns is associated with impaired toll-like receptor signaling","volume":"195","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E44","DOI":"10.25011\/cim.v30i2.979","article-title":"Human newborn polymorphonuclear neutrophils exhibit decreased levels of MyD88 and attenuated p38 phosphorylation in response to lipopolysaccharide","volume":"30","author":"Yan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-200112000-00016","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor-alpha and IL-10 production by lung macrophages from preterm and term neonates","volume":"50","author":"Blahnik","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200838391","article-title":"Phenotype and function of neonatal DC","volume":"39","author":"Willems","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.1011525","article-title":"Preterm neonates display altered plasmacytoid dendritic cell function and morphology","volume":"93","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2003.08.003","article-title":"Impaired responses to toll-like receptor 4 and toll-like receptor 3 ligands in human cord blood","volume":"21","author":"Tonon","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3889","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI68989","article-title":"Differentiation and functional regulation of human fetal NK cells","volume":"123","author":"Ivarsson","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2011.07.027","article-title":"Off to a slow start: Under-development of the complement system in term newborns is more substantial following premature birth","volume":"217","author":"McGreal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1196509","article-title":"Fetal and adult hematopoietic stem cells give rise to distinct T cell lineages in humans","volume":"330","author":"Mold","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exphem.2004.03.012","article-title":"CD25+CD4+ T cells in human cord blood: An immunoregulatory subset with naive phenotype and specific expression of forkhead box p3 (Foxp3) gene","volume":"32","author":"Takahata","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transproceed.2019.01.007","article-title":"Tolerance to noninherited maternal antigens allows successful second kidney transplantation: A case report","volume":"51","author":"Liacini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transplant. Proc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2780","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1001188","article-title":"Human cord blood CD4+CD25hi regulatory T cells suppress prenatally acquired T cell responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigens","volume":"186","author":"Mackroth","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S27","DOI":"10.1016\/S1526-0542(04)90006-1","article-title":"The role of genetic and environmental factors in the development of T-cell mediated allergic disease in early life","volume":"5","author":"Holt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Paediatr. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3670","article-title":"Interleukin-8 (CXCL8) production is a signatory T cell effector function of human newborn infants","volume":"20","author":"Gibbons","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1794","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200939222","article-title":"Neonates harbour highly active gamma-delta T cells with selective impairments in preterm infants","volume":"39","author":"Gibbons","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5925","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0907942107","article-title":"Ordering human CD34+CD10\u2212CD19+ pre\/pro-B-cell and CD19- common lymphoid progenitor stages in two pro-B-cell development pathways","volume":"107","author":"Sanz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2591","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20110978","article-title":"A small CD11b+ human B1 cell subpopulation stimulates T cells and is expanded in lupus","volume":"208","author":"Griffin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.176.1.165","article-title":"Reduced ability of neonatal and early-life bone marrow stromal cells to support plasmablast survival","volume":"176","author":"Pihlgren","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"292","article-title":"Follicular dendritic cells in health and disease","volume":"3","author":"Pitzalis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"423","article-title":"Ontogeny of myeloid cells","volume":"5","author":"Willems","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13279","article-title":"Focused specificity of intestinal TH17 cells towards commensal bacterial antigens","volume":"510","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.09.033","article-title":"Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria","volume":"139","author":"Ivaylo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1002\/cyto.a.22520","article-title":"Lymphocytes subsets reference values in childhood","volume":"87A","author":"Tosato","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cytometry"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01876","article-title":"Beyond hot spots: Biases in antibody somatic hypermutation and implications for vaccine design","volume":"9","author":"Schramm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4043","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24377-1","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell memory is sustained in COVID-19 convalescent patients for 10 months with successful development of stem cell-like memory T cells","volume":"12","author":"Jung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2000.0576","article-title":"On immunological memory","volume":"355","author":"Zinkernagel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70034-7","article-title":"Comparative community burden and severity of seasonal and pandemic influenza: Results of the Flu Watch cohort study","volume":"2","author":"Hayward","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20130555","article-title":"Proteome-wide analysis of HIV-specific naive and memory CD4+ T cells in unexposed blood donors","volume":"211","author":"Campion","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"J220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2009.11.007","article-title":"Coordination of tolerogenic immune responses by the commensal microbiota","volume":"34","author":"Round","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2012.10.021","article-title":"Virus-specific CD4+ memory-phenotype T cells are abundant in unexposed adults","volume":"38","author":"Su","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3993","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1800010","article-title":"Inability to detect cross-reactive memory T cells challenges the frequency of heterologous immunity among common viruses","volume":"200","author":"Rowntree","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v11.i16.2502","article-title":"Effects of dendritic cells from cord blood CD34+ cells on human hepatocarcinoma cell line BEL-7402 in vitro and in SCID mice","volume":"11","author":"Su","year":"2005","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2217","article-title":"Germinal centres: Role in B-cell physiology and malignancy","volume":"8","author":"Klein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620427","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.620427","article-title":"Revisiting the coreceptor function of complement receptor type 2 (CR2, CD21); Co-engagement with the B-cell receptor inhibits the activation, proliferation, and antibody production of human B cells","volume":"12","author":"Bajtay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2101718118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2101718118","article-title":"Old vaccines for new infections: Exploiting innate immunity to control COVID-19 and prevent future pandemics","volume":"118","author":"Chumakov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23156","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.23156","article-title":"Age-related changes in lymphocyte subpopulations in healthy Thai children","volume":"34","author":"Lerkvaleekul","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2014.07.003","article-title":"HIV-1 envelope gp41 antibodies can originate from terminal ileum B cells that share cross-reactivity with commensal bacteria","volume":"16","author":"Trama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.176.1.346","article-title":"An engineered human IgG1 antibody with longer serum half-life","volume":"176","author":"Hinton","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.06.036","article-title":"Redefining chronic viral infection","volume":"138","author":"Virgin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forrest, C., Hislop, A.D., Rickinson, A.B., and Zuo, B. (2018). Proteome-wide analysis of CD8+ T cell responses to EBV reveals differences between primary and persistent infection. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1101\/327312"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2014.134","article-title":"\u03b1\u03b2 T cell receptors as predictors of health and disease","volume":"12","author":"Attaf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00292","article-title":"Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and MHC class II proteins: Conformational plasticity in antigen presentation","volume":"8","author":"Wieczorek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Murdoch Children\u2019s Research Institute (2021, April 18). BCG Vaccination to Protect HealthcareWorkers against COVID-19 (BRACE), Clinical Trials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04327206."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"10","article-title":"Coronavirus infections in childhood and vaccine studies","volume":"56","year":"2021","journal-title":"Turk. Arch. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdulla, Z.A., Al-Bashir, S.M., Al-Salih, N.S., Aldamen, A.A., and Abdulazeez, M.Z. (2021). A summary of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and technologies available or under development. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10070788"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579250","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.579250","article-title":"Progress and pitfalls in the quest for effective SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) vaccines","volume":"11","author":"Flanagan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Montero, C., Fraile-Mart\u00ednez, O., Bravo, C., Torres-Carranza, D., Sanchez-Trujillo, L., G\u00f3mez-Lahoz, A.M., Guijarro, L.G., Garc\u00eda-Honduvilla, N., As\u00fansolo, A., and Julia Bujan, J. (2021). An updated review of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and the importance of effective vaccination programs in pandemic times. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9050433"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1297","article-title":"Epidemiology and public health in the COVID-19 epidemic","volume":"13","author":"Ortega","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00462-y","article-title":"Learning from the past: Development of safe and effective COVID-19 vaccines","volume":"19","author":"Du","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00524-4","article-title":"DNA vaccines join the fight against COVID-19","volume":"399","author":"Blakney","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Moore, D.L. (2022, April 25). COVID-19 Vaccine for Children and Adolescents. Canadian Paediatric Society. Available online: https:\/\/cps.ca\/en\/documents\/position\/covid-19-vaccine-for-children-and-adolescents."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2022, April 20). Fact Check-No Evidence COVID-19 Vaccines Have Caused INCREASE in Cancers, Contrary to Claims Made on Social Media. Available online: https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/factcheck-cancer-covid-idUSL1N2UM24J."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.12.010","article-title":"Intranasal vaccination with a lentiviral vector protects against SARS-CoV-2 in preclinical animal models","volume":"29","author":"Ku","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J.H., and Lee, H.K. (2021). Delivery Routes for COVID-19 Vaccines. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9050524"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"US Food and Drugs Administration (2021, November 20). FDA Authorizes Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-10 Vaccine for Emergency Use in Children 5 through 11 Years of Age, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/news-events\/press-announcements\/fda-authorizes-pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccine-emergency-use-children-5-through-11-years-age.","DOI":"10.47287\/cen-09931-buscon1"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021, December 15). Interim Statement on COVID-19 Vaccination for Children and Adolescents. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/24-11-2021-interim-statement-on-covid-19-vaccination-for-children-and-adolescents."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"FDA News Release (2022, July 03). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Authorizes Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccines for Children Down to 6 Months of Age, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/news-events\/press-announcements\/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-authorizes-moderna-and-pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccines-children#:~:text=For%20the%20Moderna%20COVID%2D19,years%20of%20age%20and%20older."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Therapeutic Goods Administration of Australia (2022, August 05). TGA Commences Evaluation of Pfizer\u2019s COVID-19 Vaccine (COMIRNATY) for Children Aged 6 Months to Less than 5 Years, Available online: https:\/\/www.tga.gov.au\/media-release\/tga-commences-evaluation-pfizers-covid-19-vaccine-comirnaty-children-aged-6-months-less-5-years#:~:text=The%20Therapeutic%20Goods%20Administration%20(TGA,less%20than%205%20years%20old."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2022, July 30). COVID-19 Vaccines for Children and Teens, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/vaccines\/recommendations\/childrenteens.html#:~:text=About%20Vaccination%20for%20Children%20and,with%20their%20COVID%2D19%20vaccines."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Bailey, L. (2022, February 25). COVID Vaccine for Kids under 5: What Happens Next?. Available online: https:\/\/news.umich.edu\/covid-vaccine-for-kids-under-5-what-happens-next\/."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Chen, C. (2022, April 07). What\u2019s Holding Up the COVID Vaccines for Children Under 5?. Available online: https:\/\/www.medscape.com\/viewarticle\/969603."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0002621","DOI":"10.1128\/mmbr.00026-21","article-title":"Molecular virology of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronaviruses","volume":"86","author":"Kung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110195","article-title":"New understanding of the damage of SARS-CoV-2 infection outside the respiratory system","volume":"127","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-385885-6.00009-2","article-title":"Coronavirus pathogenesis","volume":"81","author":"Weiss","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gralinski, L.E., and Menachery, V.D. (2020). Return of the coronavirus: 2019-nCoV. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020135"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.12839","article-title":"Pathophysiology, transmission, diagnosis and treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). A Review","volume":"324","author":"Wiersinga","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2016.03.003","article-title":"Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses","volume":"24","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01122-w","article-title":"The T cell immune response against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"23","author":"Moss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-021-00292-w","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: A comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates","volume":"6","author":"Kyriakidis","year":"2021","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.057","article-title":"The Role of IgA in COVID-19","volume":"87","author":"Chao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-021-00947-3","article-title":"Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in 45,965 adults from the general population of the United Kingdom","volume":"6","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2632010X221075584","DOI":"10.1177\/2632010X221075584","article-title":"New coronavirus variants are creating more challenges to global healthcare system: A brief report on the current knowledge","volume":"15","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03777-9","article-title":"Reduced sensitivity of SARS-CoV-2 variant delta to antibody neutralization","volume":"596","author":"Planas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2021.102715","article-title":"Evolutionary analysis of the Delta and Delta plus variants of the SARS-CoV-2 viruses","volume":"124","author":"Kannan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6845","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27261","article-title":"Genomic analysis reveals a rapid spread and predominance of lambda (C.37) SARS-COV-2 lineage in Peru despite circulation of variants of concern","volume":"93","author":"Hurtado","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Kimball, S. (2022, March 15). Pfizer Covid Vaccine Was Just 12% Effective against Omicron in Kids 5 to 11, Study Finds. Available online: https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2022\/02\/28\/pfizer-covid-vaccine-was-just-12percent-effective-against-omicron-in-kids-5-to-11-study-finds.html."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03739-1","article-title":"Age-related immune response heterogeneity to SARS-CoV-2 vaccine BNT162b2","volume":"596","author":"Collier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Mayo Clinic Staff (2022, July 24). COVID-19 Vaccines for Kids: What You Need to Know. Available online: https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/diseases-conditions\/coronavirus\/in-depth\/covid-19-vaccines-for-kids\/art-20513332."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2021.08.010","article-title":"Why are we vaccinating children against COVID-19?","volume":"8","author":"Kostoff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022, August 04). COVID-19 Vaccines for Children and Teens, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/vaccines\/recommendations\/children-teens.html."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"piab061","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/piab061","article-title":"Weighing the risks of perimyocarditis with the benefits of SARS-CoV-2 MRNA vaccination in adolescents","volume":"10","author":"Jhaveri","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7027e2","article-title":"Use of MRNA COVID-19 vaccine after reports of myocarditis among vaccine recipients: Update from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices\u2014United States, June 2021","volume":"70","author":"Gargano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mmwr. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2021.06.083","article-title":"Myopericarditis after the Pfizer MRNA COVID-19 vaccine in adolescents","volume":"238","author":"Schauer","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2107456","article-title":"Safety, Immunogenicity, and efficacy of the BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine in adolescents","volume":"385","author":"Frenck","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00319-4","article-title":"Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine (CoronaVac) in healthy children and adolescents: A double-blind, randomised, controlled, phase 1\/2 clinical trial","volume":"21","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabj3684","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abj3684","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccines elicit durable immune responses in infant rhesus macaques","volume":"6","author":"Garrido","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2021.1951245","article-title":"Should we be vaccinating children against COVID-19 in high-income countries?","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"239","article-title":"Education and mental health: Good reasons to vaccinate children","volume":"385","author":"Frenck","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-01061-4","article-title":"COVID Vaccines and Kids: Five questions as trials begin","volume":"592","author":"Callaway","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2021.07.015","article-title":"Crossing the Rubicon: A Fine line between waiting and vaccinating adolescents against COVID-19","volume":"83","author":"Ladhani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, B., DeWitt, P.E., Russell, S., Anand, A., Bradwell, K.R., Bremer, C., Gabriel, D., Girvin, A.T., Hajagos, J.G., and McMurry, J.A. (2021). Children with SARS-CoV-2 in the National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C). medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.07.19.21260767"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021050531","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2021-050531","article-title":"Considering mandatory vaccination of children for COVID-19","volume":"147","author":"Plotkin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1093\/medlaw\/fwab024","article-title":"Compulsory childhood vaccination: Human rights, solidarity, and best interests","volume":"6","author":"Archard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Law Rev."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.9342","article-title":"Mandatory SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations in K-12 schools, colleges\/universities, and businesses","volume":"326","author":"Gostin","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.56098\/ijvtpr.v2i1.23","article-title":"Worse than the disease? Reviewing some possible unintended consequences of the mRNA vaccines against COVID-19","volume":"2","author":"Seneff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Vacc. Theory Pract. Res."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suzuki, Y.J., and Gychka, S.G. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 spike protein elicits cell signaling in human host cells: Implications for possible consequences of COVID-19 vaccines. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9010036"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2667","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20210735","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein disrupts human cardiac pericytes function through CD147 receptor-mediated signalling: A potential non-infective mechanism of COVID-19 microvascular disease","volume":"135","author":"Avolio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-00771-8","article-title":"The S1 protein of SARS-CoV-2 crosses the blood\u2013brain barrier in mice","volume":"24","author":"Rhea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617089","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.617089","article-title":"Reaction of human monoclonal antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 proteins with tissue antigens: Implications for autoimmune diseases","volume":"11","author":"Vojdani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"103479","article-title":"The mRNA-LNP platform\u2019s lipid nanoparticle component used in preclinical vaccine studies is highly inflammatory","volume":"24","author":"Ndeupen","year":"2021","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.13874","article-title":"Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a cause of anaphylaxis to the Pfizer\/BioNTech mRNA COVID-19 vaccine","volume":"51","author":"Sellaturay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2021.03.008","article-title":"Future considerations for the mRNA-lipid nanoparticle vaccine platform","volume":"48","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2021.0142","article-title":"Two cases of Graves\u2019 disease following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination: An autoimmune\/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants","volume":"31","author":"Medina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2600","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgab373","article-title":"Three cases of subacute thyroiditis following SARS-CoV-2 vaccine: Postvaccination ASIA syndrome","volume":"106","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n958","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n958","article-title":"Thrombosis after covid-19 vaccination","volume":"373","author":"Hunter","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s40545-021-00315-w","article-title":"CoViD vaccines and thrombotic events: EMA issued warning to patients and healthcare professionals","volume":"14","author":"Merchant","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.02.029","article-title":"COVID-19 and the human innate immune System","volume":"184","author":"Schultze","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd4570","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd4570","article-title":"Inborn errors of type I IFN immunity in patients with life-threatening COVID-19","volume":"370","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17842","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17865-2","article-title":"Cytokine profiling in healthy children shows association of age with cytokine concentrations","volume":"7","author":"Decker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf7570","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abf7570","article-title":"Deep immune profiling of MIS-C demonstrates marked but transient immune activation compared to adult and pediatric COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Vella","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, W., Yang, L., Li, X., Sun, M., Zhang, A., Qi, S., Chen, Z., Zhang, L., Li, J., and Xiong, H. (2021). Early immune responses and prognostic factors in children with COVID-19: A Single-center retrospective analysis. BMC Pediatr., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-021-02561-y"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2010895","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.10895","article-title":"Clinical and immune features of hospitalized pediatric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China","volume":"3","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109773","article-title":"Robust innate responses to SARS-CoV-2 in children resolve faster than in adults without compromising adaptive immunity","volume":"37","author":"Vono","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-020-1015-2","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in children and\/or adolescents: A meta-analysis","volume":"89","author":"Mantovani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21414-x","article-title":"Innate cell profiles during the acute and convalescent phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection in children","volume":"12","author":"Neeland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103357","article-title":"Blood neutrophils from children with COVID-19 exhibit both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory markers","volume":"67","author":"Seery","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ebiomedicine"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12413","article-title":"Effects of ageing on the immune system: Infants to elderly","volume":"83","author":"Valiathan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-019-0529-4","article-title":"Age-dependent differences in pulmonary host responses in ARDS: A prospective observational cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Schouten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108588","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infections in children and young People","volume":"220","author":"Felsenstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2020.05.012","article-title":"Laboratory abnormalities in children with mild and severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Pooled analysis and review","volume":"81","author":"Henry","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202048724","article-title":"Immune response in children with COVID-19 is characterized by lower levels of T-cell activation than infected adults","volume":"50","author":"Moratto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2005073","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection in children","volume":"382","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e148694","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.148694","article-title":"Natural Mucosal Barriers and COVID-19 in Children","volume":"6","author":"Pierce","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2588-y","article-title":"Longitudinal analyses reveal immunological misfiring in severe COVID-19","volume":"584","author":"Lucas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2020.08.037","article-title":"Pediatric Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): Clinical Presentation, Infectivity, and Immune Responses","volume":"227","author":"Yonker","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-00828-7","article-title":"Proinflammatory IgG Fc structures in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"22","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1772677","article-title":"Dynamic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 shedding and neutralizing antibody in children with COVID-19. Emerg","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0438-3","article-title":"Protective humoral immunity in SARS-CoV-2 infected pediatric patients","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-020-00826-9","article-title":"Distinct antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in children and adults across the COVID-19 clinical spectrum","volume":"22","author":"Weisberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hachim, A., Gu, H., Kavian, O., Kwan, M.Y., Chan, W., Yau, Y.S., Chiu, S.S., Tsang, O.T., Hui, D.S., and Ma, F. (2021). The SARS-CoV-2 antibody landscape is lower in magnitude for structural proteins, diversified for accessory proteins and stable long-term in children. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.01.03.21249180"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01263-3","article-title":"Humoral signatures of protective and pathological SARS-CoV-2 infection in children","volume":"27","author":"Bartsch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108852","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.108852","article-title":"Virological and immunological features of SARS-CoV-2-infected children who develop neutralizing antibodies","volume":"34","author":"Cotugno","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.10.051","article-title":"Quick COVID-19 healers sustain anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody production","volume":"183","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3335","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-021-04124-w","article-title":"Serum IgG levels in children 6 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection and comparison with adults","volume":"180","author":"Bloise","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e148694","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.150909","article-title":"Asymptomatic or mild symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection elicits durable neutralizing antibody responses in children and adolescents","volume":"6","author":"Garrido","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, C.A., Li, A.P., Hachim, A., Hui, D.S., Kwan, M.Y., Tsang, O.T., Chiu, S.S., Chan, W.H., Yau, Y.S., and Kavian, N. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 specific T cell responses are lower in children and increase with age and time after infection. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.02.02.21250988"},{"key":"ref_162","first-page":"86","article-title":"The Turkish Neonatal Society proposal for the management of COVID-19 in the neonatal intensive care unit","volume":"55","author":"Erdeve","year":"2020","journal-title":"Turk. Arch. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_163","first-page":"95","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection in children","volume":"55","year":"2020","journal-title":"Turk. Arch. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.15270","article-title":"Systematic review of COVID-19 in children shows milder cases and a better prognosis than adults","volume":"109","author":"Ludvigsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0962-9","article-title":"Age-dependent effects in the transmission and control of COVID-19 epidemics","volume":"26","author":"Davies","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1097\/PCC.0000000000002511","article-title":"Clinical features of critical coronavirus disease 2019 in children","volume":"21","author":"Bhumbra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200702","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-0702","article-title":"Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China","volume":"145","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002660","article-title":"Coronavirus infections in children including COVID-19: An overview of the epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment and prevention options in children","volume":"39","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-021-01553-3","article-title":"Cancer and COVID-19: Why are cancer patients more susceptible to COVID-19?","volume":"38","author":"Sinha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2020.198171","article-title":"IFN-\u03b3 is an independent risk factor associated with mortality in patients with moderate and severe COVID-19 infection","volume":"289","author":"Gadotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2020.04.002","article-title":"Cytokine storm intervention in the early stages of COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"53","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26232","article-title":"The cytokine storm and COVID-19","volume":"93","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610300","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.610300","article-title":"Different innate and adaptive immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection of asymptomatic, mild, and severe cases","volume":"11","author":"Carsetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s42358-020-00151-7","article-title":"Severe COVID-19: What have we learned with the immunopathogenesis?","volume":"60","author":"Bordallo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.31138\/mjr.31.3.268","article-title":"Kawasaki Disease and COVID-19","volume":"31","author":"Gkoutzourelas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mediterr. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa577","article-title":"An Inflammatory Profile Correlates With Decreased Frequency of Cytotoxic Cells in Coronavirus Disease 2019","volume":"71","author":"Bordoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.09.034","article-title":"Mapping Systemic Inflammation and Antibody Responses in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)","volume":"183","author":"Gruber","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26069","article-title":"Higher prevalence of asymptomatic or mild COVID-19 in children, claims and clues","volume":"92","author":"Miri","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-020-03322-y","article-title":"Pathophysiology of COVID-19: Why Children Fare Better than Adults?","volume":"87","author":"Dhochak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108420","article-title":"COVID 19-consederation for the paediatric rheumatologist","volume":"214","author":"Hedrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.04.001","article-title":"The profile of peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets and serum cytokines in children with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia","volume":"81","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564925","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.564925","article-title":"Immunopathogenesis of COVID-19: Summary and Possible Interventions","volume":"11","author":"Jacques","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.102763","article-title":"Longitudinal characteristics of lymphocyte responses and cytokine profiles in the peripheral blood of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients","volume":"55","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01051-8","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 immune repertoire in MIS-C and pediatric COVID-19","volume":"22","author":"Ravichandran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_185","first-page":"1125","article-title":"Serology confirms SARS-CoV-2 infection in PCR-negative children presenting with paediatric inflammatory multi-system syndrome","volume":"32","author":"Faustini","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd5487","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abd5487","article-title":"Immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection in hospitalized pediatric and adult patients","volume":"12","author":"Pierce","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30566-3","article-title":"Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"395","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.01.007","article-title":"Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19","volume":"184","author":"Sette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03207-w","article-title":"Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"591","author":"Gaebler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.05.015","article-title":"Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals","volume":"181","author":"Grifoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25884","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of 3062 COVID-19 patients: A meta-analysis","volume":"92","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-020-01581-5","article-title":"COVID-19 in older adults","volume":"32","author":"Nanda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1007\/s13312-020-1819-5","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Children\u2014What We Know So Far and What We Do Not","volume":"57","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1770129","article-title":"Profiling serum cytokines in COVID-19 patients reveals IL-6 and IL-10 are disease severity predictors","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001063","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjpo-2021-001063","article-title":"Understanding COVID-19: Are children the key?","volume":"5","author":"Warner","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Paediatr. Open"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31094-1","article-title":"Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"395","author":"Riphagen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_197","first-page":"m2094","article-title":"Outbreak of Kawasaki disease in children during COVID-19 pandemic: A prospective observational study in Paris, France","volume":"369","author":"Toubiana","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31103-X","article-title":"An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: An observational cohort study","volume":"395","author":"Verdoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.10369","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of 58 Children With a Pediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome Temporally Associated With SARS-CoV-2","volume":"324","author":"Whittaker","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.09.016","article-title":"The Immunology of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children with COVID-19","volume":"183","author":"Consiglio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2020.100078","article-title":"Systems-Level Immunomonitoring from Acute to Recovery Phase of Severe COVID-19","volume":"1","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2102968","article-title":"Treatment of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children","volume":"385","author":"McArdle","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.10374","article-title":"Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City","volume":"324","author":"Cheung","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.04.003","article-title":"Immune dysregulation and autoreactivity correlate with disease severity in SARS-CoV-2-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children","volume":"54","author":"Ramaswamy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03631-y","article-title":"Diverse Functional Autoantibodies in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"595","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25254","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2010722117","article-title":"Superantigenic character of an insert unique to SARS-CoV-2 spike supported by skewed TCR repertoire in patients with hyperinflammation","volume":"117","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20211381","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20211381","article-title":"TIM3+TRBV11-2 T cells and IFN\u03b3 signature in patrolling monocytes and CD16+ NK cells delineate MIS-C","volume":"219","author":"Hoste","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabh1516","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abh1516","article-title":"Polyclonal expansion of TCR Vb 21.3 + CD4 + and CD8 + T cells is a hallmark of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children","volume":"6","author":"Moreews","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e146614","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI146614","article-title":"HLA class I-associated expansion of TRBV11-2 T cells in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children","volume":"131","author":"Porritt","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20210446","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20210446","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2\u2013related MIS-C: A key to the viral and genetic causes of Kawasaki disease?","volume":"218","author":"Brodin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e149633","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI149633","article-title":"Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children is driven by zonulin-dependent loss of gut mucosal barrier","volume":"131","author":"Yonker","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e82","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002967","article-title":"Abdominal Imaging Findings in Critically Ill Children With Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Associated With COVID-19","volume":"40","author":"Morparia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1007\/s00246-020-02391-2","article-title":"Paediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome: Temporally Associated with SARS-CoV-2 (PIMS-TS): Cardiac Features, Management and Short-Term Outcomes at a UK Tertiary Paediatric Hospital","volume":"41","author":"Ramcharan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24991","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 in children: A systematic review","volume":"55","author":"Yasuhara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2020.00206","article-title":"COVID-19 infection and circulating ACE2 levels: Protective role in women and children","volume":"8","author":"Ciaglia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2022.01.014","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infections in children: Understanding diverse outcomes","volume":"55","author":"Brodin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7003e1","article-title":"COVID-19 trends among persons aged 0\u201324 Years","volume":"70","author":"Leidman","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13585","article-title":"Virological and immunological features of SARS-COV-2 infected children with distinct symptomatology","volume":"32","author":"Cotugno","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s12519-020-00343-7","article-title":"Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: Experts\u2019 consensus statement","volume":"16","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201646642","article-title":"Human B-cell memory is shaped by age- and tissue-specific T-independent and GC-dependent events","volume":"47","author":"Aranburu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-120419-022408","article-title":"Germinal Centers","volume":"40","author":"Victora","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00872","article-title":"Defining Natural Antibodies","volume":"8","author":"Holodick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02139","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.02139","article-title":"Current Understanding of Natural Antibodies and Exploring the Possibilities of Modulation Using Veterinary Models. A Review","volume":"11","author":"Reyneveld","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.02.022","article-title":"The Interplay between CD27dull and CD27bright B Cells Ensures the Flexibility, Stability, and Resilience of Human B Cell Memory","volume":"30","author":"Grimsholm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI85113","article-title":"Human regulatory B cells in health and disease: Therapeutic potential","volume":"127","author":"Mauri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/2\/329\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:36:48Z","timestamp":1760121408000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/12\/2\/329"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"references-count":225,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens12020329"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens12020329","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]}}}